Editing Lahore (section)

== History ==
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{{Main|History of Lahore}}
{{For timeline}}

=== Origins ===
{{Main|Origins of Lahore}}

No definitive record of Lahore's early history exists, and its ambiguous historical background has given rise to various theories about its establishment and history.{{sfnp|Neville|2006|p=xii}}

[[Alexander the Great]]'s historians make no mention of any city near Lahore's location during his invasion in 326 BCE, suggesting the city had not been founded by that point or was not noteworthy.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p=352}} [[Ptolemy]] mentions in his ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' a city called ''Labokla'' situated near the [[Chenab]] and Ravi rivers which may have been in reference to ancient Lahore, or an abandoned predecessor of the city.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Charles Umpherston Aitchison|title=Lord Lawrence and the Reconstruction of India Under the British Rule |year=2002 |publisher=Genesis Publishing |isbn=9788177551730|page=54}}</ref> Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] gave a vivid description of a large and prosperous unnamed city that may have been Lahore when he [[Taank Kingdom|visited the region]] in 630 CE during his tour of India.<ref name=bosworth/>

The first document that mentions Lahore by name is the ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]'' ("The Regions of the World"), written in 982 CE,<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.kroraina.com/hudud/ |title=Hudud al-'Alam, The Regions of the World: A Persian Geography, 372 A.H. – 982 A.D. |translator=V. Minorsky |year=1937 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |access-date=4 September 2013 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415015541/http://www.kroraina.com/hudud/ |url-status=live }}</ref> in which Lahore is mentioned as a town which had "impressive temples, large markets and huge orchards".<ref name=antiquity/>{{sfnp|Wink|2002b|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

Lahore, previously a town, first emerged as a notable city in 11th century during the era of Sufi saint [[Ali Hujwiri|Ali al-Hajvery]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Amjad |first=Yaḥyá |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P60yAAAAIAAJ&q=tarikh+i+pakistan+yahya |title=Tārīḵẖ-i Pākistān: qadīm daur : zamānah-yi mā qabl az tārīḵẖ : Pākistān kī sarzamīn par āj se paune do kaṛoṛ sāl pahle... |date=1989 |publisher=Sang-i Mīl Pablīkeshanz |language=ur}}</ref> Few other references to Lahore remain from before its capture by the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid]] Sultan [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]] in the 11th century. During this time, Lahore appears to have served as the capital of Punjab under Raja [[Anandapala]] of the [[Hindu Shahi|Üdi Shahi]] empire, who moved his capital there from Waihind.<ref name=bosworth/>{{sfnp|Wink|2002b|p=235}}

===Medieval era===
{{Main|Early Muslim period in Lahore}}

==== Ghaznavid ====
[[File:Data Durbar as more then one decade before by Usman Ghani.jpg|thumb|The [[Data Darbar]] shrine, one of Pakistan's most important, was built to commemorate saint [[Ali Hujwiri]], who lived in the city during 11th century.]]

Sultan Mahmud conquered Lahore between 1020 and 1027, making it part of Ghaznavid Empire.<ref name=bosworth/> He appointed [[Malik Ayaz]] as its governor in 1021. In 1034, the city was captured by Nialtigin, the rebellious governor of [[Multan]]. However, his forces were expelled by Malik Ayaz in 1036.<ref name="dsal.uchicago.edu">{{cite book|title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=16 |page=106 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/text.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V16_112.gif|access-date=27 December 2017|archive-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313205336/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/text.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V16_112.gif |url-status=live}}</ref>

With the support of Sultan [[Ibrahim of Ghazna|Ibrahim]], Malik Ayaz rebuilt and repopulated the city, which had been devastated after the Ghaznavid invasion. He also erected city walls and a masonry fort was built in 1037–1040 on the ruins of a previous one.<ref name="Petersen1996">{{cite book|author=Andrew Petersen |year=1996|title=Dictionary of Islamic Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofisla00andr |url-access=registration|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-06084-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofisla00andr/page/159 159]}}</ref> A confederation of Hindu princes unsuccessfully laid siege to Lahore in 1043–44 during Ayaz's rule.<ref name=bosworth>{{cite book |last1=Bosworth |first1=C. Edmund|title=Historic Cities of the Islamic World|date=2007|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9047423836 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CgawCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA305|access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref> The city became a cultural and academic centre, renowned for [[poetry]].<ref>{{cite web |title=GC University Lahore |publisher=Gcu.edu.pk |url=http://www.gcu.edu.pk/Citylahore.htm |access-date=15 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908173139/http://www.gcu.edu.pk/Citylahore.htm |archive-date= 8 September 2012 }}</ref><ref name="WescoatWolschke-Bulmahn1996">{{cite book|author1=James L. Wescoat|author2=Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn|date=1996 |title=Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=96ec98LieGsC&pg=PA149 |page=149 |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks|isbn=978-0-88402-235-0}}</ref>

Lahore was formally made the eastern capital of Ghaznavid Empire during the reign of [[Khusrau Shah]] in 1152.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Chronology: Historical and Biographical|date=1872|publisher=Longmans, Green and Company |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00wood|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00wood/page/590 590]|quote=lahore 1152. |access-date=26 December 2017}}</ref> After the fall of Ghazni in 1163, It became the sole capital.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Lahore |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/327951/Lahore |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502052043/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/327951/Lahore |archive-date=2 May 2015}}</ref> Under their patronage, poets and scholars from other cities of Ghaznavid Empire congregated in Lahore.<ref name="Ikram">{{cite book|last1=Ikram |first1=S. M.|date=1964|title=Muslim Civilization in India |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimcivilizati00ikra |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |author1-link=S. M. Ikram}}</ref> The entire city of Lahore during the medieval Ghaznavid era was probably located west of the modern [[Shah Alami|Shah Alami Bazaar]] and north of the [[Bhatti Gate]].{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

==== Mamluk ====
Following the [[Siege of Lahore (1186)|Siege of Lahore]] in 1186, the [[Ghurid]] ruler [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammad]] captured the city and imprisoned the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik,<ref name=bosworth/> thus ending Ghaznavid rule over Lahore. Lahore was made an important establishment of the [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]] of the Delhi Sultanate following the assassination of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206. Under the reign of Mamluk sultan [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], Lahore attracted poets and scholars from medieval [[Muslim World]]. Lahore at this time had more poets writing in Persian than any other city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apnaorg.com/articles/indianexpress-2/ |title=Once upon a time |publisher=Apnaorg.com |access-date=15 March 2011 |archive-date=15 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615113959/http://www.apnaorg.com/articles/indianexpress-2/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[[Alexander Mikaberidze|Mikaberidze, Alexander]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C&q=delhi+sultanate+turko-afghan&pg=PA269 "Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia ('''2''' volumes): A Historical Encyclopedia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404025723/https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C&q=delhi+sultanate+turko-afghan&pg=PA269 |date=4 April 2023 }} ABC-CLIO, 22 July 2011 {{ISBN|978-1-59884-337-8}} pp 269–270</ref> Following the death of Aibak, Lahore first came under the control of the Governor of Multan, [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha]], and then was briefly captured in 1217 by the sultan in Delhi, [[Iltutmish]].<ref name=bosworth/>

In an alliance with local [[Khokhar]]s in 1223, [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmian]] sultan [[Jalal al-Din Mangburni]] captured Lahore after fleeing from [[Genghis Khan]]'s invasion of his realm.<ref name=bosworth/> Mangburni then fled from Lahore to the city of [[Uch Sharif]] after Iltutmish's army re-captured Lahore in 1228.<ref name=bosworth/>

The threat of Mongol invasions and political instability in Lahore caused future sultans to regard Delhi as a safer capital for the sultanate,<ref name="jackson"/> even though Delhi was considered a forward base whereas Lahore was widely considered as the centre of Islamic culture in northeastern Punjab.<ref name="jackson"/>

Lahore came under progressively weaker central rule under Iltutmish's descendants in Delhi, to the point that governors in the city acted with great autonomy.<ref name=bosworth/> Under the rule of Kabir Khan Ayaz, Lahore was virtually independent from the Delhi Sultanate. Actual Sultanate rule on Lahore lasted only a few decades until the locals reclaimed their autonomy.<ref name=bosworth/> Lahore was sacked and ruined by the Mongol army in 1241.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=980SAvbmpUkC |title=The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India |first=Balaji|last=Sadasivan|date=14 August 2018 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=9789814311670}}</ref> Lahore governor Malik Ikhtyaruddin Qaraqash fled the Mongols,<ref>{{cite book |author=Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi |date=2010 |title=Indo-Persian Historiography Up to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-81-908918-0-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJbmTL8svpwC}}</ref> while the Mongols held the city for a few years under the rule of the Mongol chief [[Toghrul]].<ref name="jackson">{{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Peter|title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History|date=16 October 2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521543290 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA309 |access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref>

In 1266, sultan [[Ghiyas ud din Balban|Balban]] reconquered Lahore, but in 1287 under the Mongol ruler [[Temür Khan]],<ref name="jackson"/> the Mongols again overran northern Punjab. Because of Mongol invasions, Lahore region became a city on a frontier, with the region's administrative centre shifted south to [[Dipalpur]].<ref name=bosworth/> The Mongols again invaded northern Punjab [[Mongol invasion of India, 1297-98|in 1298]], though their advance was eventually stopped by [[Ulugh Khan]], brother of Sultan [[Alauddin Khalji]] of Delhi.<ref name="jackson"/> The Mongols again attacked Lahore in 1305.{{sfnp|Neville|2006|p=xiii}}

====Tughluq====
Lahore briefly flourished again under the reign of [[Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq]] (Ghazi Malik) of the [[Tughluq dynasty]] between 1320 and 1325, though the city was again sacked in 1329 by [[Tarmashirin]] of the Central Asian [[Chagatai Khanate]], and then again by the Mongol chief Hülechü.<ref name=bosworth/> Khokhars seized Lahore in 1342,<ref>{{cite book|title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=16 |page=107 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/text.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V16_112.gif|access-date=27 December 2017|archive-date=13 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313205336/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/text.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V16_112.gif|url-status=live}}</ref> but the city was retaken by Ghazi Malik's son, [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]].<ref name=bosworth/> The weakened city then fell into obscurity and was captured once more by the Khokhar chief, [[Shaikha Khokhar|Shaikha]] in 1394.<ref name="dsal.uchicago.edu"/> By the time the Mongol conqueror [[Timur]] captured the city in 1398 from Shaikha, he did not loot it because it was no longer wealthy.{{sfnp|Neville|2006|p=xii}}

====Late Sultanates====
[[File:Neevin Masjid 3 (WCLA).jpg|thumb|The [[Neevin Mosque]] is one of Lahore's few remaining medieval era buildings.]]
Timur gave control of the Lahore region to [[Khizr Khan]], governor of Multan, who later established the [[Sayyid dynasty]] in 1414 – the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.<ref name="Ahmed">{{cite book|last1=Ahmed|first1=Farooqui Salma|title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century|date=2011|publisher=Pearson India|isbn=9788131732021}}</ref> The city was twice besieged by [[Jasrat]], ruler of [[Sialkot]], during the reign of [[Mubarak Shah (Sayyid dynasty)|Mubarak Shah]], the longest of which being in 1431–32.<ref name="jackson"/> To combat Jasrat, the city was granted by the Sayyid dynasty to [[Bahlul Lodi]] in 1441, though Lodi would then displace the Sayyids in 1451 by establishing himself upon the throne of Delhi.<ref name=bosworth/>

Bahlul Lodi installed his cousin, Tatar Khan, to be governor of the city, though Tatar Khan died in battle with [[Sikandar Lodi]] in 1485.<ref name="dhillon"/> Governorship of Lahore was transferred by Sikandar Lodi to Umar Khan Sarwani, who quickly left the management of this city to his son Said Khan Sarwani. Said Khan was removed from power in 1500 by Sikandar Lodi, and Lahore came under the governorship of [[Daulat Khan Lodi]], son of Tatar Khan and former employer of [[Guru Nanak]] (the founder of [[Sikhism]]).<ref name="dhillon">{{cite book |last1=Dhillon|first1=Dalbir Singh|title=Sikhism Origin and Development|date=1988|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=osnkLKPMWykC&pg=PA9|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref>

===Mughals===
{{Main|Subah of Lahore|Mughal period in Lahore}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:The Badshahi in all its glory during the Eid Prayers.JPG|[[Badshahi Mosque]]
File:Naulakha Pavilion in Lahore Fort.jpg|[[Lahore Fort]]
File:Tomb of Emperor Jahangir.jpg|[[Tomb of Jahangir]]
File:Wazir Khan's hammams (4).JPG|[[Shahi Hammam]]
File:Tomb of Khan-e-Jahan Bahadur Kokaltash 01.jpg|[[Tomb of Khan-e-Jahan Bahadur Kokaltash]]
</gallery>
[[File:Grave of Nur Jahan.jpg|thumb|Grave of Nur Jahan]]
[[File:Revised photo Interior of Wazir Khan Mosque.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Wazir Khan Mosque]] in Lahore is considered to be the most ornately decorated Mughal-era mosque.<ref name=Masson>{{cite book|last1=Masson|first1=Vadim Mikhaĭlovich|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast : from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century|date=2003|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=9789231038761}}</ref>]]
[[File:Interior of Mariyam Zamani Begum Mosque.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Begum Shahi Mosque]] was completed in 1614 in honour of [[Jahangir]]'s mother, [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]].]]

====Early Mughal====
[[Babur]], the founder of the [[Mughal Empire]], captured and sacked Lahore and Dipalpur, although he retreated after the Lodi nobles backed away from assisting him.<ref name=bosworth/><ref>{{Cite book|author=Iqtidar Alam Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URluAAAAMAAJ |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India|date=2008 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5503-8|page=32 |language=en}}</ref> The city became a refuge to [[Humayun]] and his cousin [[Kamran Mirza]] when [[Sher Shah Suri]] rose in power in the Gangetic plains, displacing Mughals. Sher Shah Suri seized Lahore in 1540, though Humayun reconquered Lahore in February 1555.<ref name=bosworth/> The establishment of Mughal rule eventually led to the most prosperous era of Lahore's history.<ref name=bosworth/> Lahore's prosperity and central position has yielded more Mughal-era monuments in Lahore than either [[Delhi]] or [[Agra]].<ref name=mughaleconomist>{{cite news|title=Short Cuts |url=https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21695034-chinese-style-modernisation-draws-perilously-close-brilliant-17th-century-landmarks-short-cuts |access-date=19 August 2016|newspaper=The Economist|date=19 March 2016|quote=For centuries Lahore was the heart of Mughal Hindustan, known to visitors as the City of Gardens. Today it has a greater profusion of treasures from the Mughal period (the peak of which was in the 17th century) than India's Delhi or Agra, even if Lahore's are less photographed. |archive-date=19 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819161514/http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21695034-chinese-style-modernisation-draws-perilously-close-brilliant-17th-century-landmarks-short-cuts|url-status=live}}</ref>

By the time of the rule of the Mughal empire's greatest emperors, a majority of Lahore's residents did not live within the walled city itself but instead lived in suburbs that had spread outside the city's walls.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Only 9 of the 36 urban quarters around Lahore, known as ''guzars'', were located within the city walls during the [[Akbar]] period.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} During this period, Lahore was closely tied to smaller market towns known as ''qasbahs'', such as [[Kasur]] and [[Eminabad]], as well as [[Amritsar]], and [[Batala]] in modern-day India, which in turn, linked to supply chains in villages surrounding each ''qasbah''.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

====Akbar====
Beginning in 1584, Lahore became the Mughal capital when Akbar began re-fortifying the city's ruined citadel, laying the foundations for the revival of the [[Lahore Fort]].{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Akbar made Lahore one of his original twelve ''[[subah]]'' provinces,{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} and in 1585–86, relegated governorship of the city and ''subah'' to [[Bhagwant Das]], brother of [[Mariam-uz-Zamani]], who was commonly known as "Jodhabhai".<ref name="Chandra">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part – II|date=2005|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|isbn=8124110662|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pg=PA28|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref>

Akbar also rebuilt the city's walls and extended their perimeter east of the Shah Alami bazaar to encompass the sparsely populated area of Rarra Maidan.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} The Akbari Mandi [[grain trade|grain market]] was set up during this era, which continues to function to the present-day.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Akbar also established the [[Dharampura]] neighbourhood in the early 1580s, which survives today.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Latif|first1=Syad Muhammad|title=Agra historical and descriptive with an account of Akbar and his court and of the modern city of Agra |date=2003 |publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=8120617096 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9hZuAAAAMAAJ&q=akbar+dharmpura|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref> The earliest of Lahore's many [[haveli]]s date from the Akbari era.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

Lahore's Mughal monuments were built under the reign of Akbar and several subsequent emperors.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Lahore reached its cultural zenith during this period, with dozens of mosques, tombs, shrines, and urban infrastructure developed in the city.

====Jahangir====
During the reign of Emperor [[Jahangir]] in the early 17th century, Lahore's bazaars were noted to be vibrant, frequented by foreigners, and stocked with a wide array of goods.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} In 1606, Jehangir's rebel son [[Khusrau Mirza]] laid siege to Lahore after obtaining the blessings of the Sikh [[Guru Arjan Dev]].<ref name="Holt">{{cite book|last1=Holt|first1=P. M.|title=The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2A, The Indian Sub-Continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West|date=1977|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521291372 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y99jTbxNbSAC&pg=PA45 |access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref> Jehangir quickly defeated his son at Bhairowal, and the roots of Mughal–Sikh animosity grew.<ref name="Holt"/> Sikh Guru Arjan Dev was executed in Lahore in 1606 for his involvement in the rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pashaura Singh| title= Life, and Work of Guru Arjan: History, Memory, and Biography in the Sikh Tradition| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FbPXAAAAMAAJ| year=2006| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-567921-2| pages=23, 217–218}}</ref> Emperor Jahangir chose to be buried in Lahore, and [[Tomb of Jahangir|his tomb]] was built in Lahore's [[Shahdara Bagh]] suburb in 1637 by his wife [[Nur Jahan]], [[Tomb of Nur Jahan|whose tomb]] is also nearby.

====Shah Jahan====
Jahangir's son, [[Shah Jahan]] (reigned 1628–1658), was born in Lahore in 1592. He renovated large portions of the [[Lahore Fort]] with luxurious white marble and erected the iconic [[Naulakha Pavilion]] in 1633.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web|publisher=UNESCO |title=International council on monuments and sites|url= https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/171.pdf |access-date=13 April 2015|archive-date=10 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710195232/http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/171.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Shah Jahan lavished Lahore with some of its most celebrated and iconic monuments, such as the [[Shahi Hammam]] in 1635, and both the [[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|Shalimar Gardens]] and the extravagantly decorated [[Wazir Khan Mosque]] in 1641. The population of pre-modern Lahore probably reached its zenith during his reign, with suburban districts home to perhaps 6 times as many compared to within the [[Walled City of Lahore|Walled City]].{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

====Aurangzeb====
[[File:Fort of Lahore.jpg|thumb|The iconic Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore Fort was built in 1674 and faces Aurangzeb's Badshahi Mosque.]]
[[File:Wazir Khan Mosque William Carpenter 1866.jpg|thumb|Wazir Khan Mosque painting by [[William Carpenter (painter)|William Carpenter]] (1866)]]
Shah Jahan's son, [[Aurangzeb]], last of the great Mughal Emperors, further contributed to the development of Lahore. Aurangzeb built the Alamgiri Bund embankment along the Ravi river in 1662 in order to prevent its shifting course from threatening the city's walls.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} The area near the embankment grew into a fashionable locality, with several nearby pleasure gardens laid by Lahore's gentry.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} The largest of Lahore's Mughal monuments, the [[Badshahi Mosque]], was raised during Aurangzeb's reign in 1673, as well as the iconic Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore fort in 1674.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lahore Fort Alamgiri Gate|website=Asian Historical Architecture |url=http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1036/pakistan/lahore/lahore-fort-alamgiri-gate |access-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228171934/http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/1036/pakistan/lahore/lahore-fort-alamgiri-gate |archive-date=28 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Late Mughal====
[[File:Sunehri_masjid_top_view_2.JPG|thumb|The [[Sunehri Mosque, Lahore|Sunehri Mosque]] was built in the walled city in the early 18th century, when the Mughal Empire was in decline.]]
Civil wars regarding succession to the Mughal throne following Aurangzeb's death in 1707 led to weakening control over Lahore from Delhi, and a prolonged period of decline in Lahore.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Mughal preoccupation with the [[Marathas]] in the [[Deccan Plateau]] eventually resulted in Lahore being governed by a series of governors who pledged nominal allegiance to the ever-weaker Mughal emperors in Delhi.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

Mughal Emperor [[Bahadur Shah I]] died en route to Lahore as part of a campaign in 1711 to subdue Sikh rebels under the leadership of [[Banda Singh Bahadur]].<ref name=bosworth/> His sons fought a battle outside Lahore in 1712 for succession to the Mughal crown, with [[Jahandar Shah|Jahandar]] winning the throne.<ref name=bosworth/> Sikh rebels were defeated during the reign of [[Farrukhsiyar]] when Abd as-Samad and Zakariyya Khan suppressed them.<ref name=bosworth/>

[[Nader Shah]]'s brief invasion of the Mughal Empire [[Nader Shah's invasion of the Mughal Empire|in early 1739]] wrested control away from [[Zakariya Khan Bahadur]]. Though Khan was able to win back control after the Persian armies had left,<ref name=bosworth/> the trade routes had shifted away from Lahore, and south towards [[Kandahar]] instead.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Indus ports near the Arabian Sea that served Lahore also silted up during this time, reducing the city's importance even further.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

Struggles between Zakariyya Khan's sons following his death in 1745 further weakened Muslim control over Lahore, thus leaving the city in a power vacuum, and vulnerable to foreign marauders.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Axworthy|first1=Michael|title=Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant|date=2010 |publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85773-347-4|page=195}}</ref>

=== Durrani invasions ===
The [[Durrani Empire|Durrani]] ruler [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah]] occupied Lahore [[Battle of Lahore (1748)|in 1748]].<ref name=bosworth/> Following Ahmed Shah Durrani's quick retreat, the Mughals entrusted Lahore to Mu’īn al-Mulk [[Mir Mannu]].<ref name=bosworth/> Ahmad Shah again invaded in 1751, forcing Mir Mannu into signing a treaty that nominally subjected Lahore to Durrani rule.<ref name=bosworth/> Lahore was third time conquered by Ahmad Shah [[Battle of Lahore (1752)|in 1752]]. The Mughal [[list of Mughal grand viziers|Grand Vizier]] Ghazi-Din Imad al-Mulk seized Lahore in 1756, provoking Ahmad Shah to invade for fourth time in 1757, after which he placed the city under the rule of his son, [[Timur Shah Durrani|Timur Shah]].<ref name=bosworth/>

Durrani rule was interrupted when Lahore was conquered by [[Adina Beg]] [[Arain]] with the assistance of Marathas in 1758 during their [[Maratha conquest of North-west India|campaigns against Afghans]].<ref name=K.RoyIHB>{{cite book | last=Roy |first=Kaushik |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |year=2004 |publisher=Permanent Black, India |pages=80–1 |isbn=978-81-7824-109-8}}</ref> After Adina Beg's untimely death in 1758, however, [[Marathas]] temporarily occupied the city. The following year, the Durranis again marched into Lahore and conquered it.<ref>Mehta, J.L. (2005). Advanced study in the history of modern India 1707–1813. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 260. {{ISBN|978-1-932705-54-6}}. Retrieved 23 September 2010.</ref> After the Durranis withdrew from the city in 1765, [[Sikh]] forces quickly occupied it.<ref name=bosworth/> By this time, the city had been ravaged several time and had lost all of its former grandeur. The Durranis invaded two more times—in 1797 and 1798—under [[Shah Zaman]], but the [[Sikhs]] re-occupied the city after both invasions as the Durranis were forced to attend to other problems on their western borders.<ref name=bosworth/>

=== Sikh ===
{{Main|Sikh period in Lahore}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Samadhi of Ranjit Singh 123.jpg|[[Samadhi of Ranjit Singh]]
File:Samadhi of Ranjit Singh Golden Dome.jpg|[[Gurdwara Dera Sahib]]
File:Nau Nihal Singh's haveli, now Victoria Girls High School, Lahore.jpg|[[Haveli of Nau Nihal Singh]]
File:Hazuri Bagh Baradari & Ground.JPG|[[Hazuri Bagh]]
File:Gurudwara Arjun Ram (WCLA).jpg|[[Gurdwara Janam Asthan Guru Ram Das]]
File:Temple associated with Loh.JPG|The [[Lava Temple]] at the [[Lahore Fort]] dates from the Sikh period,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1382839|title=Heritage: the Lonely Little Temple|author=Sufia Zamir|date=14 January 2018 |access-date=27 April 2020|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803115758/https://www.dawn.com/news/1382839|url-status=live |work=Dawn}}</ref> and is dedicated to the Hindu deity ''[[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]]''
</gallery>

[[File:Tomb of Asif Khan 01.jpg|thumb|The [[Tomb of Asif Khan]] was one of several monuments plundered for its precious building materials during the Sikh period.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}<ref name="GHF">{{cite web|title=Tomb of Asif Khan |publisher=Global Heritage Fund |url=http://ghn.globalheritagefund.com/uploads/documents/document_1937.pdf|access-date=13 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-date=6 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106072423/http://ghn.globalheritagefund.com/uploads/documents/document_1937.pdf}}</ref>]]

====Early====
Expanding Sikh [[Misl]]s secured control over Lahore in 1767, when the [[Bhangi Misl]] state captured the city.<ref name="eos">{{Citation|title=Pakistani Sikhs reopen temple after 73 years| date=17 November 2016 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5mBW1s597tw| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/5mBW1s597tw |archive-date=11 December 2021|url-status=live|language=en|access-date=21 January 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 1780, the city was divided among three rulers: [[Gujjar Singh Banghi|Gujjar Singh]], Lahna Singh, and [[Suba Singh|Sobha Singh]]. Instability resulting from this arrangement allowed nearby [[Amritsar]] to establish itself as the area's primary commercial centre in place of Lahore.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]'s grandson, [[Zaman Shah]], captured Lahore in 1796, and again in 1798–99.<ref name=bosworth/> [[Ranjit Singh]] negotiated with the Afghans for the post of ''[[subahdar]]'' to control Lahore following the second invasion.<ref name=bosworth/>

By the end of the 18th century, the city's population drastically declined, with its remaining residents living within the city walls, while the extramural suburbs lay abandoned, forcing travellers to pass through abandoned and ruined suburbs for a few miles before reaching the city's gates.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

====Sikh Empire====
[[File:Badshahi Mosqu - Mughal Art in an Ocean of Concrete.jpg|thumb|Lahore's [[Hazuri Bagh]] is at the centre of an ensemble of Mughal and Sikh era monuments, including the [[Badshahi Mosque]], [[Lahore Fort]], [[Roshnai Gate]], and the [[Samadhi of Ranjit Singh]].]]
[[File:'By @ibneAzhar'-Hazuri Bagh-Lahore-Pakistan (10).JPG|thumb|The marble [[Hazuri Bagh Baradari]] was built in 1818 to celebrate [[Ranjit Singh]]'s acquisition of the [[Koh-i-Noor]] diamond.<ref name="bansal"/>]]
In the aftermath of Zaman Shah's 1799 invasion of Punjab, Ranjit Singh, of nearby [[Gujranwala]], began to consolidate his position. Singh was able to seize control of the region after a series of battles with the Bhangi chiefs who had seized Lahore in 1780.<ref name=bosworth/><ref name="KakshiPathak2007">{{cite book |last1=Kakshi|first1=S.R.|last2=Pathak|first2=Rashmi|last3=Pathak |first3=S.R. Bakshi R.|title=Punjab Through the Ages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_FRF3a5y2EC|access-date=12 June 2010|date=2007|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-738-1 |pages=272–274}}</ref> His army marched to Anarkali, where according to legend, the gatekeeper of the [[Lohari Gate, Lahore|Lohari Gate]], Mukham Din Chaudhry, opened the gates allowing Ranjit Singh's army to enter Lahore.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} After capturing Lahore, Sikh soldiers immediately began plundering Muslim areas of the city until their actions were reined in by Ranjit Singh.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh|first1=Bhagata|title=Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his times|date=1990|publisher=Sehgal Publishers Service}}</ref>

Ranjit Singh's rule restored some of Lahore's lost grandeur, but at the expense of destroying the remaining Mughal architecture for building materials.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} He established a mint in the city in 1800,{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} and moved into the Mughal palace at the Lahore fort after repurposing it for his own use in governing the Sikh Empire.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/IDE822/ |title=Ranjit Singh: A Secular Sikh Sovereign |author=K.S. Duggal |date=1989 |isbn=8170172446 |publisher=Exoticindiaart.com |access-date=3 September 2015 |archive-date=17 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617232755/http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/IDE822/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1801, he established a [[Gurdwara Janam Asthan Guru Ram Das|Gurdwara Ram Das]] to mark the site where [[Guru Ram Das]] was born in 1534.

[[File:Court_of_Lahore.jpg|thumb|The [[Sikh Empire#Government|Punjabi royal court]] at Lahore]]

Lahore became the empire's administrative capital, though the nearby economic centre of Amritsar had also been established as the empire's spiritual capital by 1802.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} By 1812, Singh had mostly refurbished the city's defences by adding a second circuit of outer walls surrounding Akbar's original walls, with the two separated by a moat. Singh also partially restored Shah Jahan's decaying [[Shalimar Gardens, Lahore|Shalimar Gardens]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hkttreks.com/pakistan-lahore/ |title=Pakistan – Lahore – Hindukush Karakuram Tours & Treks |access-date=1 February 2019|archive-date=2 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042553/http://www.hkttreks.com/pakistan-lahore/|url-status=live}}</ref> and built the [[Hazuri Bagh Baradari]] in 1818 to celebrate his capture of the [[Koh-i-Noor]] diamond from [[Shuja Shah Durrani]] in 1813.<ref name=bansal>{{cite book|last1=Bansal|first1=Bobby|title=Remnants of the Sikh Empire: Historical Sikh Monuments in India & Pakistan|date=2015|publisher=Hay House, Inc|isbn=978-9384544935}}</ref> He erected the [[Gurdwara Dera Sahib]] to mark the site of [[Guru Arjan Dev]]'s death (1606). The Sikh royal court also endowed religious architecture in the city, including a number of Sikh [[gurdwara]]s, Hindu temples, and [[haveli]]s.<ref>Kartar Singh Duggal (2001). Maharaja Ranjit Singh: The Last to Lay Arms. Abhinav Publications. pp. 125–126. {{ISBN|978-81-7017-410-3}}.</ref><ref>Masson, Charles. 1842. ''Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab'', 3 v. London: Richard Bentley (1) 37</ref>

While much of Lahore's Mughal-era fabric lay in ruins by the time of his arrival, Ranjit Singh's rule saw the re-establishment of Lahore's glory, though the Mughal monuments suffered during the Sikh period. Singh's armies plundered most of Lahore's most precious Mughal monuments, and stripped the white marble from several monuments to send to different parts of the Sikh Empire during his reign.{{sfnp|Sidhwa|2005|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Monuments plundered for decorative materials include the Tomb of Asif Khan, the Tomb of Nur Jahan, and the Shalimar Gardens.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}<ref name="Archaeological Survey of India">{{cite book|last1=Marshall |first1=John Hubert |date=1906|title=Archaeological Survey of India |publisher=Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing}}</ref> Ranjit Singh's army also desecrated the Badshahi Mosque by converting it into an ammunition depot and a stable for horses.{{sfnp|Sidhwa|2005|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} The [[Sunehri Masjid, Lahore|Sunehri Mosque]] in the Walled City was also converted to a gurdwara,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Panjab Past and Present |year=1988|volume=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rw5DAAAAYAAJ&q=sunehri+ |access-date=28 August 2016|publisher=Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjab University}}</ref> while the Mariyam Zamani Mosque was repurposed into a gunpowder factory.<ref>{{cite news |author=Farooq Soomro |title=A visual delight – Maryam Zamani and Wazir Khan Mosques |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1163373|access-date=29 August 2016 |work=Dawn |date=13 May 2015|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226032600/https://www.dawn.com/news/1163373|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Late ====
The [[Sikh Empire#Government|Punjabi royal court]] (''Lahore Durbar'') underwent a quick succession of rulers after the death of Ranjit Singh. His son [[Kharak Singh]] died on 6 November 1840, soon after taking the throne. On that same day, the next appointed successor to the throne, [[Nau Nihal Singh]], died in an accident at the gardens of Hazuri Bagh.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Maharaja [[Sher Singh]] was then selected as Maharajah, though his claim to the throne was quickly challenged by [[Chand Kaur]], widow of Kharak Singh and mother of Nau Nihal Singh, who quickly seized the throne.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Sher Singh raised an army that attacked Chand Kaur's forces in Lahore on 14 January 1841. His soldiers mounted weaponry on the minarets of the Badshahi Mosque in order to target Chand Kaur's forces in the Lahore fort, destroying the fort's historic ''Diwan-e-Aam''.{{sfnp|Sidhwa|2005|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Kaur quickly ceded the throne, but Sher Sing was then assassinated in 1843 in Lahore's ''Chah Miran'' neighbourhood along with his wazir Dhiyan Singh.<ref name=bansal/> Dhyan Singh's son, Hira Singh, sought to avenge his father's death by laying siege to Lahore in order to capture his father's assassins. The siege resulted in the capture of his father's murderer, Ajit Singh.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

[[File:Maharaja_Sher_Singh_%281807-1843%29_seated,_attended_by_his_council_in_the_Lahore_Fort..jpg|thumb|[[List of monarchs of Punjab|Maharaja]] [[Sher Singh]] attended by his council in [[Lahore Fort]]]]

[[Duleep Singh]] was then crowned Maharajah, with Hira Singh as his ''wazir'', but his power would be weakened by the continued infighting among Sikh nobles,{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} as well as confrontations against the British during the two [[Anglo-Sikh War (disambiguation)|Anglo-Sikh wars]].

After the conclusion of the two Anglo-Sikh wars, the Sikh Empire fell into disarray, resulting in the fall of the ''Lahore Durbar'', and commencement of British rule after they captured Lahore and the wider Punjab region.{{sfnp|Latif|1892|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

=== British colonial period ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Punjab university Art & Design Dept.jpg|[[University of the Punjab]]
File:Government College University Tower in Lahore.jpg|[[Government College University (Lahore)|Government College University]]
File:Front View of Lahore Museum.jpg|[[Lahore Museum]]
File:Lahore High Court Building.jpg|[[Lahore High Court]]
File:King Edward Medical University.jpg|[[King Edward Medical University]]
</gallery>
[[File:Lahore (Baedeker, 1914).jpg|thumb|upright|Map of the Old City and environs.]]
[[File:Street scene of Lahore, 1890s.jpg|thumb|upright|The Shah Alami area of Lahore's Walled City in 1890]]

The [[British East India Company]] seized control of Lahore in February 1846 from the collapsing Sikh state and occupied the rest of Punjab in 1848.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Following the defeat of the Sikhs at the [[Battle of Gujrat]], British troops formally deposed Maharaja Duleep Singh in Lahore that same year.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Punjab was then annexed to the British Indian Empire in 1849.{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

At the commencement of British rule, Lahore was estimated to have a [[population]] of 120,000.<ref name="Univ Of Minnesota Press">{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "By the turn of the twentieth century, Lahore's population had nearly doubled from what it had been when the province was first annexed, growing from an estimated 120,000 people in 1849 to over 200,000 in 1901."</ref> Prior to annexation by the British, Lahore's environs consisted mostly of the [[Walled City of Lahore|Walled City]] surrounded by plains interrupted by settlements to the south and east, such as [[Mozang Chungi|Mozang]] and [[Qila Gujar Singh]], which have since been engulfed by modern Lahore. The plains between the settlements also contained the remains of Mughal gardens, tombs, and Sikh-era military structures.<ref>{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "On the eve of annexation, Lahore's suburbs were made up of a flat, debris-strewn plain interrupted by a small number of populous abadis, the deserted cantonment and barracks of the former Sikh infantry (which, according to one British large buildings in various states of disrepair."</ref>

The British viewed Lahore's Walled City as a bed of potential social discontent and disease epidemics, and so largely left the inner city alone, while focusing development efforts in Lahore's suburban areas and Punjab's fertile countryside.<ref>{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "The inner city, on the other hand, remained problematic. Seen as a potential hotbed of disease and social instability, and notoriously difficult to observe and fathom, the inner districts of the city remained stubbornly resistant to colonial intervention. Throughout the British period of occupation in Punjab, for reasons we will explore more fully, the inner districts of its largest cities were almost entirely left alone. 5 The colonial state made its most significant investments in suburban tracts outside of cities... It should not surprise us that the main focus of imperial attention in Punjab was its fertile countryside rather than cities like Lahore."</ref> The British instead laid out their capital city in an area south of the Walled City that would first come to be known as "Donald's Town" before being renamed "Civil Station".{{sfnp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

Under early British rule, formerly prominent Mughal-era monuments that were scattered throughout Civil Station were also re-purposed and sometimes desecrated – including the [[Tomb of Anarkali]], which the British had initially converted to clerical offices before re-purposing it as an [[Anglican]] church in 1851.<ref>{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "What is more striking than the fact that Punjab's new rulers (cost-effectively) appropriated the symbolically charged buildings of their predecessors is how long some of those appropriations lasted. The conversion of the Mughal-era tomb of Sharif un-Nissa, a noblewoman during Shah Jahan's reign, popularly known as Anarkali, was one such case (Figure 1.2). This Muslim tomb was first used as offices and residences for the clerical staff of Punjab's governing board. In 1851, however, the tomb was converted into the Anglican church."</ref> The 17th-century [[Dai Anga Mosque]] was converted into railway administration offices during this time, the tomb of Nawab Bahadur Khan was converted into a storehouse, and the tomb of Mir Mannu was used as a wine shop.<ref>{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "the mosque of Dai Anga, Emperor Shah Jahan's wet nurse, which the British converted first into a residence and later into the office of the railway traffic manager. Nearby was the tomb of Nawab Bahadur Khan, a highly placed member of Akbar's court, which the railway used as a storehouse... manager. Nearby was the tomb of Nawab Bahadur Khan, a highly placed member of Akbar's court, which the railway used as a storehouse. That same tomb had been acquired earlier by the railway from the army, who had used it as a theater for entertaining officers. The railway provided another nearby tomb free of charge to the Church Missionary Society, who used it for Sunday services. The tomb of Mir Mannu, an eighteenth-century Mughal viceroy of Punjab who had brutally persecuted the Sikhs while he was in power, escaped demolition by the railway but was converted nevertheless into a private wine merchant's shop."</ref> The British also used older structures to house municipal offices, such as the Civil Secretariat, Public Works Department, and Accountant General's Office.<ref>{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "with an abundance of abandoned large structures scattered throughout the civil station on nazul (state administered) property, the colonial government often chose to house major institutions in converted buildings rather than to build anew. These institutions included the Civil Secretariat, which, as we have seen, was located in Ventura's former house; the Public Works from Ranjit Singh's period; and the Accountant General's office, headquartered in a converted seventeenth century mosque near the tomb of Shah Chiragh, just off Mall Road."</ref>

[[File:Lahore Railway Station 01.jpg|thumb|left|Constructed in the aftermath of the 1857 [[Sepoy Mutiny]], the design of the [[Lahore Junction railway station|Lahore Railway Station]] was highly militarised to defend the structure from further uprisings against British rule.]]
The British built the [[Lahore Junction railway station|Lahore Railway Station]] just outside the Walled City shortly after the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Mutiny of 1857]]; the station was therefore styled as a medieval castle to ward off any potential future uprisings, with thick walls, turrets, and holes to direct gun and cannon fire for the defence of the structure.<ref>{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "The Lahore station, built during a time when securing British civilians and troops against a future "native" uprising was foremost in the government's mind, fortified medieval castle, complete with turrets and crenellated towers, battered flanking walls, and loopholes for directing rifle and cannon fire along the main avenues of approach from the city."</ref> Lahore's most prominent government institutions and commercial enterprises came to be concentrated in Civil Station in a half-mile wide area flanking [[The Mall, Lahore|The Mall]], where unlike in Lahore's military zone, the British and locals were allowed to mix.<ref name="Mall Road">{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "We should remember that outside of colonial military cantonments, where rules encouraging racial separation were partially formalized in the residential districts of India's colonial cities. Wherever government institutions, commercial enterprises, and places of public congregation were concentrated, mixing among races and social classes was both legally accommodated and necessary. In Lahore these kinds of activities were concentrated in a half-mile-wide zone stretching along Mall Road from the Civil Secretariat, near Anarkali's tomb, at one end to the botanical gardens at the other."</ref> The Mall continues to serve as the epicentre of Lahore's civil administration, as well as one of its most fashionable commercial areas. The British also laid the spacious [[Lahore Cantonment]] to the southeast of the Walled City at the former village of Mian Mir, where unlike around The Mall, laws did exist against the mixing of different races.

Lahore was visited on 9 February 1870 by [[Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh|Prince Alfred]], [[Duke of Edinburgh]] – a visit in which he received delegations from the [[Dogra dynasty|Dogras]] of [[Jammu]], Maharajas of [[Patiala]], the Nawab of [[Bahawalpur]], and other rulers from various Punjabi states.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RzBAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA341|title=History of the Panjáb from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time|last=Muḥammad Laṭīf (Saiyid, Khān Bahādur)|date=1891|publisher=Calcutta Central Press Company, limited}}</ref> During the visit, he visited several of Lahore's major sights.<ref name=":0" /> British authorities built several important structures around the time of the [[Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] (1887) in the distinctive [[Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture|Indo-Saracenic style]], including the [[Lahore Museum]] and [[National College of Arts|Mayo School of Industrial Arts]].<ref name="Making Lahore Modern 1894">{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "As a gesture of loyalty, Punjab's "Princes, Chiefs, merchants, men of local note, and the public generally" formed a subscription to erect the "Victoria Jubilee Institute for the Promotion and Diffusion of Technical and Agricultural Education and Science" in Lahore, a complex that eventually formed the nucleus of the city's museum and the Mayo School of Art (completed in 1894)."</ref>

The British carried out a census of Lahore in 1901, and counted 20,691 houses in the Walled City.<ref>{{harvp|Glover|2008|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}. "According to the 1901 census, therefore, the inner city of Lahore contained exactly 20,691 "houses"."</ref> An estimated 200,000 people lived in Lahore at this time.<ref name="Univ Of Minnesota Press" /> Lahore's posh [[Model Town, Lahore|Model Town]] was established as a "garden town" suburb in 1921, while [[Krishan Nagar]] locality was laid in the 1930s near The Mall and Walled City.
[[File:Bawa Dingha Singh building, Lahore.jpg|thumb|upright|[[The Mall, Lahore|The Mall]], Lahore's pre-independence commercial core, features many examples of colonial architecture.]]
Lahore played an important role in the independence movements of both India<ref name="Mall Road"/> and Pakistan. The [[Declaration of the Independence of India]] was moved by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and passed unanimously at midnight on 31 December 1929 at Lahore's [[Bradlaugh Hall]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99jan27/head3.htm |title=Republic Day |work=The Tribune |access-date=15 March 2011 |archive-date=29 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150129021853/http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99jan27/head3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Indian ''[[Swaraj flag|Swaraj]]'' [[Swaraj flag|flag]] was adopted this time as well. Lahore's jail was used by the British to imprison independence activists such as [[Jatin Das]], and was also where [[Bhagat Singh]] was hanged in 1931.<ref>[http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C09%5C02%5Cstory_2-9-2007_pg7_33 "A memorial will be built to Bhagat Singh, says the governor of Lahore."] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120729120941/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C09%5C02%5Cstory_2-9-2007_pg7_33 |date=29 July 2012 }} ''Daily Times Pakistan''. 2 September 2007.</ref> Under the leadership of [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], the [[All India Muslim League]] passed the [[Lahore Resolution]] in 1940, demanding the creation of Pakistan as a separate homeland for the Muslims of India.<ref>[http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A043 Story of Pakistan – Lahore Resolution 1940] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126002501/http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A043 |date=26 January 2012 }}, Jin Technologies. Retrieved 19 September 2007.</ref>

=== Partition ===
The 1941 census showed that city of Lahore had a population of 671,659, of which was 64.5% Muslim, with the remainder 35% being Hindu and Sikh, alongside a small Christian community.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Khaled Ahmed|title=The City that wanted to know |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/lahore-the-city-that-wanted-to-know-4686476/|access-date=28 December 2017 |agency=Indian Express|date=3 June 2017|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224043630/https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/lahore-the-city-that-wanted-to-know-4686476/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The population figure was disputed by Hindus and Sikhs before the Boundary Commission that would draw the [[Radcliffe Line]] to demarcate the border of the two new states based on religious demography.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} In a bid to have Lahore awarded to India, they argued that the city was only 54% Muslim, and that Hindu and Sikh domination of the city's economy and educational institutions should trump Muslim demography.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Two-thirds of shops, and 80% of Lahore's factories belonged to the Hindu and Sikh community.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Kuldip Nayyar claimed that [[Cyril Radcliffe]] had told him in 1971 that he originally had planned to give Lahore to the new [[Dominion of India]],<ref name="Dabas2017"/><ref name="Nayar2018">{{cite web |author1=[[Kuldip Nayar]] |title='I nearly gave you Lahore': When Kuldip Nayar asked Cyril Radcliffe about deciding Indo-Pak border |url=https://scroll.in/article/891693/i-nearly-gave-you-lahore-when-kuldip-nayar-asked-cyril-radcliffe-about-deciding-indo-pak-border |website=Scroll.in |publisher=[[Scroll.in]] |date=24 August 2018 |access-date=22 January 2019 |archive-date=22 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122025001/https://scroll.in/article/891693/i-nearly-gave-you-lahore-when-kuldip-nayar-asked-cyril-radcliffe-about-deciding-indo-pak-border |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kaul1991">{{cite book |last1=Kaul |first1=Pyarelal |title=Crisis in Kashmir |date=1991 |publisher=Suman Publications |page=42|quote=Under Radcliffe Award, Lahore was to have gone to India and not to Pakistan. The Arbitrator Radcliffe, announced to the representatives of India and Pakistan that Lahore had fallen to the lot of India.}}</ref> but decided to place it within the [[Dominion of Pakistan]], which he saw as lacking a major city as he had already awarded [[Calcutta]] to India.<ref name="Nayar">{{cite news |last1=Nayar |first1=Kuldip |title=Line of Division: Real and Imagined |newspaper=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060924/spectrum/main1.htm |date=24 September 2006 |language=en |access-date=22 January 2019 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309021052/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060924/spectrum/main1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dabas2017">{{cite news |last1=Dabas |first1=Maninder |title=Here's How Radcliffe Line Was Drawn On This Day And Lahore Could Not Become A Part of India |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/here-s-how-radcliff-line-was-drawn-on-this-day-and-lahore-could-not-become-a-part-of-india-328012.html |language=en |date=17 August 2017 |access-date=22 January 2019 |archive-date=28 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128021247/https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/here-s-how-radcliff-line-was-drawn-on-this-day-and-lahore-could-not-become-a-part-of-india-328012.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Nayar2018"/>

As tensions grew over the city's uncertain fate, Lahore experienced [[Partition of India|Partition]]'s worst riots.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Carnage ensued in which all three religious groups were both victims and perpetrators.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fiddian-Qasmiyeh |first1=Elena |last2=Loescher |first2=Gil |last3=Long |first3=Katy |last4=Sigona |first4=Nando |title=The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies |date=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0191645884 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QLkBBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT314 |access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> Early riots in March and April 1947 destroyed 6,000 of Lahore's 82,000 homes.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Violence continued to rise throughout the summer, despite the presence of armoured British personnel.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Hindus and Sikhs began to leave the city ''en masse'' as their hopes that the Boundary Commission would award the city to India came to be regarded as increasingly unlikely. By late August 1947, 66% of Hindus and Sikhs had left the city.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} The Shah Alami Bazaar, once a largely Hindu quarter of the Walled City, was entirely burnt down during subsequent rioting.<ref name=dejonge>{{cite book|last1=de Jonge|first1=Rene|title=Urban planning in Lahore: a confrontation with real development|date=1989|publisher=Peter Groote|isbn=9789036701839|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EqG6BQAAQBAJ&pg=PP35|access-date=11 October 2017}}</ref>

When Pakistan's independence was declared on 14 August 1947, the Radcliffe Line had not yet been announced, and so cries of "Long live Pakistan" and "God is greatest" were heard intermittently with "Long live [[Hindustan]]" throughout the night.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} On 17 August 1947, Lahore was awarded to Pakistan on the basis of its Muslim majority in the 1941 census and was made capital of the Punjab province in the new state of Pakistan. The city's location near the Indian border meant that it received large numbers of refugees fleeing eastern Punjab and northern India, though it was able to accommodate them given the large stock of abandoned Hindu and Sikh properties that could be re-distributed to newly arrived refugees.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

=== Modern ===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Islamic Summit Minar.JPG|[[Islamic Summit Minar]]
File:The Minar-e-Pakistan (vertical).jpg|[[Minar-e-Pakistan]]
File:Grand_Jamia_Masjid.jpg|[[Grand Jamia Mosque, Lahore|Grand Jamia Mosque]]
File:Punjab Assembly as more then one decade before by Usman Ghani.jpg|[[Provincial Assembly of the Punjab]]
File:'Pakistan'-Islamic Summit Minar-Lahore- By @ibneazhar- Sep 2016 (72).jpg|[[WAPDA House]]
File:Arfa Karim Tower Lahore.jpg|Arfa Karim tower in Lahore
</gallery>
[[File:First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy's Motorcade in Lahore, Pakistan.jpg|thumb|right|[[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Kennedy]] and President [[Ayub Khan (President of Pakistan)|Ayub Khan]] travelled by car in Lahore, 1962]]
[[Partition of India|Partition]] left Lahore with a much-weakened economy, and a stymied social and cultural scene that had previously been invigorated by the city's Hindus and Sikhs.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Industrial production dropped to one-third of pre-Partition level by the end of the 1940s, and only 27% of its manufacturing units were operating by 1950, and usually well-below capacity.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} [[Capital flight]] further weakened the city's economy while [[Karachi]] industrialised and became more prosperous.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}

The city's weakened economy, and proximity to the Indian border, meant that the city was deemed unsuitable to be the Pakistani capital after independence. Karachi was therefore chosen to be the capital on account of its relative tranquility during the Partition period, stronger economy, and better infrastructure.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}
[[File:Delhi_Gate_11_(WCLA).jpg|thumb|Sections of the [[Walled City of Lahore]] have been under restoration since 2012 in conjunction with the [[Agha Khan]] Trust for Culture.]]

After independence, Lahore slowly regained its significance as an economic and cultural centre of western Punjab. Reconstruction began in 1949 of the Shah Alami Bazaar, the former commercial heart of the Walled City until it was destroyed in the 1947 riots.<ref name=dejonge/> The [[Tomb of Allama Iqbal]] was built in 1951 to honour the philosopher-poet who provided the spiritual inspiration for the Pakistan movement.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} In 1955, Lahore was selected to be the capital of all [[West Pakistan]] during the single-unit period that lasted until 1970.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Shortly afterwards, Lahore's iconic [[Minar-e-Pakistan]] was completed in 1968 to mark the spot where the [[Pakistan Resolution]] was passed.{{sfnp|Kudaisya |Yong |2004|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} With support from the [[United Nations]], the [[Government of Pakistan|government]] was able to rebuild Lahore, and most scars from the communal violence of Partition were ameliorated.

The second [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|Islamic Summit Conference]] was held in the city in 1974.<ref name="oic conf">{{cite web |url=http://www.oic-oci.org/english/conf/is/2/2nd-is-sum.htm |title=Second Islamic Summit Conference |publisher=Oic-oci.org |access-date=15 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014111124/http://www.oic-oci.org/english/conf/is/2/2nd-is-sum.htm |archive-date=14 October 2006 }}</ref> In retaliation for the destruction of the [[Babri Masjid]] in India, riots erupted in 1992 in which several non-Muslim monuments were targeted, including the tomb of Maharaja [[Sher Singh]],<ref name=bansal/> and the former Jain temple near The Mall. In 1996, the [[International Cricket Council]] [[1996 Cricket World Cup|Cricket World Cup]] final match was held at the [[Gaddafi Stadium]] in Lahore.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/csas/PDF/9-Asad%20Ali%20Khan.pdf |title=Political History and Administrative History of the Punjab |access-date=27 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-date=6 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006194352/http://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/csas/PDF/9-Asad%20Ali%20Khan.pdf}}</ref>

The [[Walled City of Lahore]] restoration project began in 2009, when the Punjab government restored the Royal Trail from [[Akbari Gate]] to the [[Lahore Fort]] with money from the [[World Bank]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thelahorecity.com/history-of-lahore/ |title=Lahore – History of Lahore|publisher=thelahorecity.com |access-date=11 September 2016|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226032556/http://thelahorecity.com/history-of-lahore/|url-status=live}}</ref>