Editing Kielce (section)

==History==
[[File:Dworek Laszczyków Kielce.JPG|thumb|left|A typical [[Dwór (manor house)|Polish manor house]] called ''dworek'', dating back to the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The pictured house is one of the city's most precious buildings]]
The area of Kielce has been inhabited since at least the 5th century BC. Until the 6th or 7th century, the banks of the Silnica were inhabited by [[Celts]]. They were driven out by a [[Lechites|Lechitic]] tribe of [[Vistulans]] who started hunting in the nearby huge forests and had settled most of the area now known as [[Lesser Poland]] and present-day Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship. The lands of Wiślanie were at first subdued by [[Duchy of Bohemia|Bohemia]], however they soon came under the control of the [[Piast dynasty]] and became a part of the emerging Polish state.

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The area of the [[Holy Cross Mountains]] was almost unpopulated until the 11th century when the first hunters established permanent settlements at the outskirts of the mountains. They needed a place to trade furs and meat for grain and other necessary products, and so the market of Kielce was formed. In the early 12th century the new settlement became a property of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kraków|Bishops of Kraków]], who built a wooden church and a manor. In 1171 a stone church was erected by bishop Gedeon Gryf. During the times of [[Wincenty Kadłubek]] a parochial school in Kielce was opened in 1229. By 1295 the town was granted [[city rights]]. In the mid-13th century the town was destroyed by the [[First Mongol invasion of Poland|Mongol invasion]] of [[Ögedei Khan]], but it quickly recovered.

Within the Polish Kingdom, Kielce was administratively located in the [[Sandomierz Voivodeship]] in the [[Lesser Poland Province, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland|Lesser Poland Province]]. The area around Kielce was rich in minerals such as [[copper]] ore, [[lead]] ore, and [[iron]], as well as limestone. In the 15th century Kielce became a significant centre of metallurgy. There were also several glass factories and armourer shops in the town. In 1527 bishop Piotr Tomicki founded a bell for the church and between 1637 and 1642 [[Mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland|Mannerist]] palace was erected near the market place by Bishop [[Jakub Zadzik]]. It is one of the very few examples of French Renaissance architecture in Poland and the only example of a magnate's manor from the times of [[Vasa dynasty]] to survive World War II.

During [[The Deluge (Polish history)|The Deluge]] the town was pillaged and burnt by the [[Swedish Empire|Swedes]]. Only the palace and the church survived, but the town managed to recover under the rule of bishop [[Andrzej Stanisław Załuski|Andrzej Załuski]]. During the [[Great Northern War]] it was the site of a battle between Swedish forces under [[Charles XII]] and Polish and Saxon forces under the Polish-Lithuanian king [[Augustus II]]. By 1761 Kielce had more than 4,000 inhabitants. In 1789 Kielce were [[nationalisation|nationalized]] and the burgers were granted the right to elect their own representatives in [[Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Sejm]]. The 3rd Infantry Regiment of the Polish [[Crown Army]] was stationed in Kielce in 1789.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gembarzewski|first=Bronisław|title=Rodowody pułków polskich i oddziałów równorzędnych od r. 1717 do r. 1831|year=1925|language=pl|publisher=Towarzystwo Wiedzy Wojskowej|location=Warsaw|pages=26–27}}</ref> Until the end of the century the city's economy entered a period of fast growth. A [[brewery]] was founded as well as several brick factories, a horse breeder, hospital.

===Foreign partitions of Poland===
[[File:Camp of the Russian Imperial Army near Kielce 1863.png|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Camp of the Russian Imperial Army near Kielce during the [[January Uprising]], 1863]]
As a result of the [[Third Partition of Poland]] the city was annexed by [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]]. During the [[Austro-Polish War]] of 1809 it was captured by prince [[Józef Antoni Poniatowski|Józef Poniatowski]] and joined with the Napoleon controlled [[Duchy of Warsaw]], but after the fall of [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] in 1815 it was joined with [[Russian Partition|Russian-controlled]] [[Congress Poland]]. For a brief period when Kraków was an independent [[city-state]] ([[Republic of Kraków]]), Kielce became the capital of the [[Kraków Voivodeship (1816–1837)|Kraków Voivodeship]]. Thanks to the efforts by [[Stanisław Staszic]] Kielce became the centre of the newly established Old-Polish Industrial Zone (''Staropolski Okręg Przemysłowy''). The town grew quickly as new mines, quarries and factories were constructed. In 1816 the first Polish technical university was founded in Kielce. However, after Staszic's death the Industrial Zone declined and in 1826 the school was moved to [[Warsaw]] and became the [[Warsaw University of Technology]].

In 1830 many of the inhabitants of Kielce took part in the [[November Uprising]] against Russia. In 1844, priest {{Interlanguage link|Piotr Ściegienny|pl}} began organising a local revolt to liberate Kielce from the Russian yoke, for which he was [[Sybirak|sent to Siberia]]. In 1863 Kielce took part in the [[January Uprising]]. As a reprisal for insubordination the tsarist authorities closed all Polish schools and turned Kielce into a military garrison city. The [[Polish language]] was banned. Because of these actions many [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] students took part in the [[1905 Revolution]] and were joined by factory workers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mowiawieki.pl/artykul.html?id_artykul=2317 |title=Piotr Ściegienny – rewolucjonista w sutannie |author=Mirosław Caban |author2=Wojciech Kalwat |publisher=MowiaWieki.pl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208210323/http://www.mowiawieki.pl/artykul.html?id_artykul=2317 |archive-date=2008-02-08}}</ref>

===Sovereign Poland===
[[File:Kielce pilsudski.jpg|thumb|upright=1.23|[[Józef Piłsudski]] with the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]] in Kielce, in front of the [[Palace of the Kraków Bishops in Kielce|Governor's Palace]], 1914]]
After the outbreak of [[World War I]], Kielce was the first Polish city to be liberated from Russian rule by the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]] under [[Józef Piłsudski]]. After the war when Poland regained its independence after 123 years of Partitions, Kielce became the capital of Kielce Voivodeship. The plans to strengthen Polish heavy and war industries resulted in Kielce becoming one of the main nodes of the [[Central Industrial Area]] (''Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy''). The town housed several big factories, among them the munitions factory "Granat" and the food processing plant "Społem".

===Second World War===
During the [[Invasion of Poland|Polish Defensive War]] of 1939, the main portion of the defenders of [[Westerplatte]] as well as the armoured brigade of General [[Stanisław Maczek]] were either from Kielce or from its close suburbs. During the [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|German occupation]] that lasted for most of the [[Second World War]], the city was an important centre of [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|resistance]]. There were several resistance groups active in the town, including [[Armia Krajowa]] (AK) and [[Gwardia Ludowa]] (GL).

Following the invasion, the German ''[[Einsatzgruppen|Einsatzgruppe II]]'' entered the city to commit various [[Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|atrocities against the population]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Wardzyńska|first=Maria|year=2009|title=Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion|language=pl|location=Warsaw|publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]]|page=58}}</ref> and the occupiers established a special court in Kielce.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Grabowski|first=Waldemar|year=2009|title=Polacy na ziemiach II RP włączonych do III Rzeszy|magazine=Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej|language=pl|publisher=IPN|issue=8–9 (103–104)|page=62|issn=1641-9561}}</ref> In September–November 1939, the Germans also operated a temporary ''Dulag'' transit camp for some 3,000 [[German atrocities committed against Polish prisoners of war|Polish prisoners of war]].<ref name=ushm>{{cite book|last1=Megargee|first1=Geoffrey P.|last2=Overmans|first2=Rüdiger|last3=Vogt|first3=Wolfgang|year=2022|title=The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV|publisher=Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|page=524|isbn=978-0-253-06089-1}}</ref> The POWs were held in poor conditions, there were cases of [[dysentery]] and [[typhoid fever]], and 18 POWs were executed by the Germans.<ref name=ushm/> Local Poles provided food and medicine to the POWs.<ref name=ushm/>

In January and March 1940, the Germans carried out mass arrests of local Poles as part of the ''[[German AB-Aktion in Poland|AB-Aktion]]''.<ref>Wardzyńska, p. 251–252</ref> Among the victims were teachers, priests, and local political and social activists, including women. Arrested Poles were either imprisoned in the local prison, deported to [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]] or massacred, with a notable massacre of 63 people committed by the Germans on 12 June 1940 at a local stadium.<ref>Wardzyńska, p. 252</ref> Many Poles from the prison in Kielce were also murdered in the Brzask forest near [[Skarżysko-Kamienna]] on 29 June 1940.<ref>Wardzyńska, p. 268</ref> At least five local [[Polish Scouting and Guiding Association|Polish boy scouts]] were killed by the Germans during the war.<ref>{{cite book|last=Massalski|first=Adam|editor-last=Kostkiewicz|editor-first=Janina|year=2020|title=Zbrodnia bez kary... Eksterminacja i cierpienie polskich dzieci pod okupacją niemiecką (1939–1945)|language=pl|location=Kraków|publisher=[[Jagiellonian University|Uniwersytet Jagielloński]], [[Biblioteka Jagiellońska]]|page=246|chapter=Eksterminacja młodocianych harcerek i harcerzy na ziemiach polskich w okresie okupacji niemieckiej 1939 – 1945}}</ref>

[[File:Płyta pamiątkowa na cześć zamachu na szefa gestapo.jpg|thumb|left|Monument to [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish partisans]] of World War II]]
Notable acts of resistance included theft of 2 tons of TNT from the "Społem" factory run by the Nazis, which were then used by the partisans to make hand grenades. Also, the daring escape from jail in Kielce of a dozen or so AK members, organized in November 1942 by Stanisław Depczyński. Not to mention, a grenade attack by a unit of the GL on the Smoleński coffee shop, killing 6 Germans including a major in the [[SS]] (February 1943), as well as the assassination of the noted [[Gestapo]] informant Franz Wittek on 15 June 1944, by a unit under Second Lt. Kazimierz Smolak on the corner of Solna and Paderewski Streets. One of the attackers died during the attack and a further four lost their lives not long afterwards. This was not the first assassination attempt against Wittek. In 1942, Henryk Pawelec fired at him in the market square, but his pistol misfired. In February 1943, a unit under the command of Stanisław Fąfar shot at Wittek by the Seminarium building. Wittek, though wounded by 14 bullets, survived. Successful assassinations of local collaborators, including the shooting of Jan Bocian took place in broad daylight at a shop in Bodzentyńska Street. Similar was the attack on the factory of C. Wawrzyniak in March 1943, terrorizing and disarming the ''volksdeutscher'' workers and destroying the machinery, as well as the attack on the [[HASAG]] factory in May 1943 and the takeover of the Kielce Herbskie railway station.<ref>[[:pl:Historia Kielc|Historia Kielc]] (History of Kielce), in [[Polish Wikipedia]].</ref> The underground [[University of the Western Lands]] gave secret lectures in Kielce.<ref>{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Encyklopedia konspiracji Wielkopolskiej 1939–1945|year=1998|location=Poznań|language=pl|publisher=Instytut Zachodni|page=615|isbn=83-85003-97-5}}</ref>

From 1942 to 1944, the Germans operated a collection camp for [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] POWs, seen as potential collaborators.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Megargee|first1=Geoffrey P.|last2=Overmans|first2=Rüdiger|last3=Vogt|first3=Wolfgang|year=2022|title=The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume IV|publisher=Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|pages=532–533|isbn=978-0-253-06089-1}}</ref>

In 1944, during and following the [[Warsaw Uprising]], the Germans deported thousands of Varsovians from the [[Dulag 121 camp in Pruszków|Dulag 121 camp]] in [[Pruszków]], where they were initially imprisoned, to Kielce.<ref name=dul>{{cite web|url=http://dulag121.pl/encyklopediaa/transporty-z-obozu-dulag-121/|title=Transporty z obozu Dulag 121|website=Muzeum Dulag 121|accessdate=26 June 2021|language=pl}}</ref> Those Poles were mainly old people, ill people and women with children.<ref name=dul/> 9,000 Poles [[Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany|expelled]] from Warsaw stayed in Kielce, as of 1 November 1944.<ref name=dul/>

Moreover, the hills and forests of [[Holy Cross Mountains]] became a scene of heavy [[Partisan (military)|partisan]] activity. A small town of [[Pińczów]] located some {{convert|30|km|0|abbr=off}} from Kielce became the capital of the so-called ''Pinczów Republic'', a piece of Polish land controlled by the partisans. The "Jodla" Świętokrzyskie Mountains Home Army fought against the Germans long before [[Operation Tempest]] inflicted heavy casualties on the occupying forces and later took part in the final liberation of their towns and cities in January 1945. During the war, many of inhabitants of Kielce lost their lives. Following the war, Kielce was restored to Poland, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, which stayed in power until the 1980s. In August 1945, the Polish resistance led by [[Antoni Heda]] and [[Stefan Bembiński]] carried out the [[Raid on Kielce Prison]] and liberated some 350 prisoners.

===Jewish history===
[[File:Kielce synagoga front.jpg|thumb|[[Kielce Synagogue]], built 1903-1909]]
Prior to the 1939 [[Invasion of Poland]], like many other cities across the [[Second Polish Republic]], Kielce had a significant Jewish population. According to the [[Russian census of 1897]], among the total population of 23,200 inhabitants, there were 6,400 Jews in Kielce (around 27 percent).<ref>[[Joshua D. Zimmerman]], ''Poles, Jews, and the politics of nationality'', Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2004, {{ISBN|0-299-19464-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=6sbr9cZyw_4C&dq=population+Brest+Poles+Jews&pg=PA16 Google Print, p.16]</ref> On the eve of the Second World War there were about 18,000 Jews in the city. Between the onset of war and March 1940, the Jewish population of Kielce expanded to 25,400 (35% of all residents),<ref name="shtetl-1">{{cite web |author=Marta Kubiszyn |author2=Adam Dylewski |author3=Justyna Filochowska |date=2009–2016 |title=Kielce |publisher=[[POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews]] |work=[[Virtual Shtetl]] |url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/pl/article/kielce/5,historia/?action=view&page=1 |pages=1–3|language=pl}}</ref> with trains of dispossessed Jews arriving under the escort of German [[Order Police battalions]] from the [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany]].<ref name="yivo">{{cite web |author=Wacław Wierzbieniec |translator=Anna Grojec |title=Kielce |url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Kielce |publisher=YIVO Institute for Jewish Research |year=2010 |work=Jews in Eastern Europe}}</ref>

Immediately after the German [[occupation of Poland]] in September 1939, all Jews were ordered to wear a [[Star of David]] on their outer garments. Jewish–owned factories in Kielce were confiscated by the [[Gestapo]], stores and shops along the main thoroughfares liquidated, and ransom fines introduced. The [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|forced labour]] and deportations to concentration camps culminated in mass extermination of Jews of Kielce during [[the Holocaust in occupied Poland]].<ref name="KUr">{{cite book |title=Zagada ludnosci zydowskiej Kielc: 1939–1945 |author=Prof. Krzysztof Urbański |year=2005 |chapter=III: Ghetto |chapter-url=http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/kielce1/kie076.html |pages=76–116 |via=JewishGen, Yizkor Book Project |translator=Yaacov Kotlicki}}</ref>

In April 1941, the [[Kielce Ghetto]] was formed, surrounded by high fences, barbed wire, and guards.<ref>{{cite book |title=Der Judenmord in Polen und die deutsche Ordnungspolizei 1939–1945 |author=Wolfgang Curilla |publisher=Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfrrAwAAQBAJ&q=%22Polizeibataillon%20305%22%20Kielce |page=526 |isbn=978-3506770431}}</ref> The gentile Poles were ordered to vacate the area and the Jews were given one week to relocate. The ghetto was split in two, along Warszawska Street (Nowowarszawska) with the Silnica River&nbsp;''[[:pl:Silnica (rzeka)|(pl)]]'' running through it.<ref name="shtetl-1"/> The so-called large ghetto was set up between the streets of Orla, Piotrkowska, Pocieszka, and Warszawska to the east, and the smaller ghetto between Warszawska on the west, and the streets of Bodzentyńska, St. Wojciech, and the St. Wojciech square. The ghetto gates were closed on 5 April 1941; the [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] was formed with 85 members and ordered to guard it.<ref name="ChW">{{cite web |author=Chris Webb |title=Kielce |publisher=Holocaust Historical Society |year=2014 |url=http://www.holocausthistoricalsociety.org.uk/kielce.html |at=''Sources: The Yad Vashem Encylopiedia of the Ghettos During the Holocaust'' Volume 1, [[Yad Vashem]], 2009; ''Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka – The Aktion Reinhard Death Camps'' By [[Yitzhak Arad|Y. Arad]], Indiana University Press,&nbsp;1987}}</ref> Meanwhile, expulsions elsewhere and deportations to Kielce continued until August 1942 at which time there were 27,000 prisoners crammed in the ghetto. Trains with Jewish families arrived from the entire [[Kielce Voivodeship]], and also from [[Vienna]], [[Poznań]], and [[Łódź]].<ref name="shtetl-1"/>

The severe overcrowding, rampant hunger, and outbreaks of epidemic typhus took the lives of 4,000 people before mid-1942.<ref name="shtetl-1"/> During this time, many of them were forced to work at a nearby German munition plant run by [[Hasag]]. In August 1942, the [[Kielce Ghetto]] was liquidated in the course of only five days. During [[Roundup (history)|roundups]], all Jews unable to move were shot on the spot including the sick, the elderly, and the disabled; 20,000–21,000 Jews were led into waiting [[Holocaust train]]s, and murdered in the gas chambers of [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]]. After the extermination action only 2,000 Jews were left in Kielce, lodged in [[Zwangsarbeitslager|the labour camp]] at Stolarska and Jasna Streets ''[[:pl:Obóz pracy Jasna-Stolarska w Kielcach|(pl)]]'' within the small ghetto. Those who survived were sent to other forced labour camps. On 23 May 1943 the [[Kielce cemetery massacre]] was perpetrated by the German police; 45 Jewish children who had survived the [[Kielce Ghetto]] liquidation, were murdered by [[Order Police battalions]].<ref name="shtetl-1"/>

[[File:Kielce planty 7.jpg|thumb|Building of the Kielce Jewish Committee and refugee centre on Planty Street]]
On 4 July 1946 the local Jewish gathering of some 200 Holocaust survivors from the Planty 7 Street refugee centre of the Zionist Union became the target of the [[Kielce pogrom]] in which 37 (40) Jews (17–21 of whom remain unidentified) and 2 ethnic Poles were killed, including 11 fatally shot with military rifles and 11 more stabbed with bayonets, indicating direct involvement of loyal to Moscow Polish communist troops.<ref name="ipn2008">{{cite journal |title=Pogrom kielecki – oczami świadka |type=special issue |journal=Niezalezna Gazeta Polska |location=Warsaw |date=4 July 2008 |quote=Leszek Bukowski & Andrzej Jankowski (ed.), vol. II, with Foreword by Jan Żaryn, IPN: Warsaw 2008, pp. 166–171; {{ISBN|8360464871}}. |author=Judge Andrzej Jankowski |author2=Leszek Bukowski |at=1–8 in PDF |url=http://pamiec.pl/download/49/27596/IPN2920080704.pdf |access-date=3 August 2016 |archive-date=26 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073423/http://pamiec.pl/download/49/27596/IPN2920080704.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

During the [[Cold War]], many Jewish historians theorized that the pogrom became the cause of outward Jewish emigration from Poland immediately following the opening of the borders in 1947.<ref>Königseder, Angelika, and [[Juliane Wetzel]], ''Waiting for Hope: Jewish Displaced Persons in Post-World War II Germany'', Northwestern University Press, 2001, {{ISBN|0-8101-1477-1}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y59izLT_VawC&dq=kielce+%22displaced+persons%22&pg=PA46 pp. 46-47]</ref><ref>Wyman, Mark, ''DPs: Europe's Displaced Persons'', Cornell University Press, 1998, {{ISBN|0-8014-8542-8}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=lHNw7MnsmlYC&dq=kielce+%22displaced+persons%22&pg=PA144 p. 144]</ref> Nevertheless, the true reasons behind the dramatic increase of Jewish emigration from Poland were far more complex.<ref name="Marrus">{{cite book|last=Marrus|first=Michael Robert | author-link = Michael Marrus|author2=Aristide R. Zolberg |title=The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ssrLM0yWD1kC&q=%22accelerated+powerfully+after+the+Kielce+pogrom%22&pg=PA336|publisher=Temple University Press|year=2002|pages=336|isbn=1-56639-955-6|quote="This gigantic effort, known by the Hebrew code word ''Brichah''(flight), accelerated powerfully after the Kielce pogrom in July 1946"}}</ref> The new government of the [[Communist Poland]] signed a repatriation agreement with the Soviet Union helping over 150,000 Holocaust survivors leave the Soviet Union legally.<ref name="Ther-Siljak">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGmTs2SceAgC&q=%22agreements+on+the%22+%22mutual+evacuation+of+citizens%22&pg=PA137 | title=Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944-1948 | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | year=2001 | access-date=May 11, 2011 |author1=Philipp Ther |author-link=:de:Philipp Ther | author2-link=Ana Siljak |author2=Ana Siljak | pages=138 | isbn=0-7425-1094-8}}</ref> Poland was the only [[Eastern Bloc]] country to allow free and unrestricted Jewish [[Aliyah]] to the nascent [[State of Israel]], upon the conclusion of World War II.<ref name=D-H>Devorah Hakohen, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hCw6v0TFhdMC&dq=%22Poland+opened+its+gates+to+Jewish+emigration.%22&pg=PA70 ''Immigrants in turmoil: mass immigration to Israel and its repercussions...''] Syracuse University Press, 2003 - 325 pages. Page 70. {{nowrap|{{ISBN|0-8156-2969-9}}}}</ref> After the Kielce pogrom [[Marian Spychalski|Gen. Spychalski]] of PWP signed a legislative decree allowing the remaining survivors to leave Poland without visas or exit permits.<ref name="Kochavi-175">{{cite web |last=Aleksiun |first=Natalia |title=Beriḥah |url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/printarticle.aspx?id=219 |publisher=[[YIVO]] |quote=Suggested reading: Arieh J. Kochavi, "Britain and the Jewish Exodus...," Polin 7 (1992): pp. 161–175}}</ref> Poland was the only [[Eastern Bloc]] country to do so, at war's end.<ref name="D-H" /> Britain demanded from Poland (among others) to halt the Jewish exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.<ref name="Kochavi-xi">{{cite book|last=Kochavi|first=Arieh J.|title=Post-Holocaust Politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish Refugees, 1945–1948| url=https://archive.org/details/postholocaustpol00koch|url-access=registration|quote=Britain exerted pressure on the governments of Poland.|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=2001|pages=xi|isbn=0-8078-2620-0}}</ref>