Editing Kazakhstan (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Kazakhstan}}
{{More citations needed section|date=December 2018}}<!--Russian and Soviet sections have few citations-->
[[File:Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png|thumb|Central Asia, including modern Kazakhstan, during the [[Iron Age]]]]
Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the [[Paleolithic]] era.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yZHmpRGYtTEC&q=kazakhstan%2Bpaleolithic&pg=PA91|title=Early Paleolithic in South and East Asia|last=Ikawa-Smith|first=Fumiko|date=1 January 1978|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-081003-5|page=91|language=en|access-date=14 November 2020|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417174608/https://books.google.com/books?id=yZHmpRGYtTEC&q=kazakhstan+paleolithic&pg=PA91|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Botai culture]] (3700–3100 BC) is credited with the first domestication of horses. The Botai population derived most of their ancestry from a deeply European-related population known as [[Ancient North Eurasian]]s, while also displaying some [[Genetic history of East Asians|Ancient East Asian]] admixture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jeong |first1=Choongwon |last2=Balanovsky |first2=Oleg |last3=Lukianova |first3=Elena |last4=Kahbatkyzy |first4=Nurzhibek |last5=Flegontov |first5=Pavel |last6=Zaporozhchenko |first6=Valery |last7=Immel |first7=Alexander |last8=Wang |first8=Chuan-Chao |last9=Ixan |first9=Olzhas |last10=Khussainova |first10=Elmira |last11=Bekmanov |first11=Bakhytzhan |date=June 2019 |title=The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=966–976 |doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0878-2 |issn=2397-334X |pmc=6542712 |pmid=31036896 |bibcode=2019NatEE...3..966J }}</ref> [[Pastoralism]] developed during the [[Neolithic]]. The population was [[Caucasian race|Caucasoid]] during the [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]] period.<ref>{{Cite journal
 |last            = Ismagulov
 |first           = O
 |year            = 2010
 |title           = Physical Anthropology of Kazakh People and their Genesis
 |journal         = Science of Central Asia
 |url             = http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=4&Itemid=28
 |display-authors = etal
 |access-date     = 5 November 2022
 |archive-date    = 10 February 2017
 |archive-url     = https://web.archive.org/web/20170210124931/http://www.scientificfund.kz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7:physical-anthropology-of-kazakh-people-and-their-genesis
 |url-status      = dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians|first=Ann|last=Gibbons|date=10 June 2015|title=Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians|journal=Science|publisher=AAAS|access-date=5 November 2022|archive-date=2 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902191050/https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Kazakh territory was a key constituent of the Eurasian trading [[Steppe Route]], the ancestor of the terrestrial [[Silk Road UNESCO World Heritage Sites|Silk Roads]]. Archaeologists believe that humans first [[domestication of the horse|domesticated the horse]] in the region's vast steppes. During recent prehistoric times, Central Asia was inhabited by groups such as the possibly Indo-European [[Afanasievo culture]],<ref>According to Allentoft et al. (2015) and Haak et al. (2015),</ref> later early [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] cultures such as [[Andronovo culture|Andronovo]],<ref name="Beckwith49">{{cite book |last1=Beckwith |first1=Christopher I. |title=Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present |date=16 March 2009 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-2994-1 |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ue8BxLEMt4C |postscript=:}} "Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians."</ref> and later Indo-Iranians such as the [[Saka]] and [[Massagetae]].<ref name="B_68">{{harvnb|Beckwith|2009|p=68}} "Modern scholars have mostly used the name Saka to refer to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe and Tarim Basin"</ref><ref name="D_37">{{cite book |last=Dandamayev |first=M. A. |author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev |chapter=Media and Achaemenid Iran |editor1-last=Harmatta |editor1-first=János |editor1-link=János Harmatta |year=1994 |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9U6RlVVjpakC |publisher=UNESCO |page=37 |isbn=9231028464}} "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."</ref> Other groups included the nomadic [[Scythians]] and the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] in the southern territory of the modern country. The Andronovo and [[Srubnaya culture]]s, precursors to the peoples of the [[Scythian cultures]], were found to harbor mixed ancestry from the [[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya]] [[Western Steppe Herders|Steppe herders]] and peoples of the Central European Middle Neolithic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Narasimhan|first1=Vagheesh M.|date=2019|title=The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]|volume=365|issue=6457|pages= eaat7487|biorxiv=10.1101/292581|doi=10.1126/science.aat7487|pmc= 6822619|pmid= 31488661}}</ref>

In 329 BC, [[Alexander the Great]] and his [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]] army fought in the [[Battle of Jaxartes]] against the [[Scythians]] along the Jaxartes River, now known as the [[Syr Darya]] along the southern border of modern Kazakhstan.

=== Turkic Khaganate ===
{{main|Turkic migration|First Turkic Khaganate}}

The main [[Turkic migration|migration]] of [[Turkic peoples]] occurred between the 5th and 11th centuries when they spread across most of Central Asia. The Turkic peoples slowly replaced and assimilated the previous [[Iranian languages|Iranian]]-speaking locals, turning the population of Central Asia from largely [[Indo-Iranians|Iranian]], into primarily of East Asian descent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Damgaard |first1=Peter de Barros |last2=Marchi |first2=Nina |last3=Rasmussen |first3=Simon |last4=Peyrot |first4=Michaël |last5=Renaud |first5=Gabriel |last6=Korneliussen |first6=Thorfinn |last7=Moreno-Mayar |first7=J. Víctor |last8=Pedersen |first8=Mikkel Winther |last9=Goldberg |first9=Amy |last10=Usmanova |first10=Emma |last11=Baimukhanov |first11=Nurbol |date=May 2018 |title=137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0094-2 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |language=en |volume=557 |issue=7705 |pages=369–374 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 |pmid=29743675 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..369D |hdl=1887/3202709 |s2cid=13670282 |issn=1476-4687 |quote=The wide distribution of the Turkic languages from Northwest China, Mongolia and Siberia in the east to Turkey and Bulgaria in the west implies large-scale migrations out of the homeland in Mongolia. |hdl-access=free |access-date=10 August 2022 |archive-date=21 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221160318/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0094-2 |url-status=live }} The quotation is from pp. 4–5.</ref>

The [[First Turkic Khaganate]] was founded by [[Bumin Qaghan|Bumin]] in 552 on the Mongolian Plateau and quickly spread west toward the Caspian Sea. The [[Göktürks]] drove before them various peoples: [[Xionites]], [[Uar (tribe)|Uar]], [[Onogurs|Oghur]]s and others. These seem to have merged into the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] and [[Old Great Bulgaria|Bulgars]]. Within 35 years, the [[Eastern Turkic Khaganate|eastern half]] and the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]] were independent. The Western Khaganate reached its peak in the early 7th century.

=== Cuman-Kipchak and the Golden Horde ===
{{main|Cumania|Golden Horde|Turco-Mongol tradition}}
[[File:Cumania (1200) eng.png|thumb|right|[[Cumania|Cuman–Kipchak confederation]] in Eurasia circa 1200. The Kazakhs are descendants of [[Kipchaks]] and other Turkic and medieval Mongol tribes.]]

The [[Cuman people|Cumans]] entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the [[Kipchak people|Kipchak]] and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. While ancient cities [[Taraz]] (Aulie-Ata) and [[Hazrat-e Turkestan]] had long served as important way-stations along the [[Silk Road]] connecting Asia and Europe, true political consolidation began only with the Mongol rule of the early 13th century. Under the [[Mongol Empire]], the first strictly structured administrative districts (Ulus) were established. After the [[division of the Mongol Empire]] in 1259, the land that would become modern-day Kazakhstan was ruled by the [[Golden Horde]], also known as the Ulus of Jochi. During the Golden Horde period, a [[Turco-Mongol tradition]] emerged among the ruling elite wherein [[Turkification|Turkicised]] descendants of [[Genghis Khan]] followed [[Islam]] and continued to reign over the lands.

=== Kazakh Khanate ===
{{Main|Kazakh Khanate}}

In 1465, the [[Kazakh Khanate]] emerged as a result of the dissolution of the [[Golden Horde]]. Established by [[Janibek Khan]] and [[Kerei Khan]], it continued to be ruled by the [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]] clan of Tore ([[Jochi]]d dynasty). Throughout this period, traditional [[nomad]]ic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the [[steppe]]. In the 15th century, a distinct [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] identity began to emerge among the [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes. This was followed by the [[Kazakh War of Independence]], where the Khanate gained its sovereignty from the [[Shaybanids]]. The process was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of the Kazakh [[Kazakh language|language]], culture, and economy.

[[File:Жуз.svg|thumb|250px|Approximate areas occupied by the three Kazakh jüz in the early 20th century
{|
|{{legend|#ccff99|[[Junior Juz]]}}
|{{legend|#fdd99b|[[Middle Juz]]}}
|{{legend|#ffaaaa|[[Senior Juz]]}}
|}]]

Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh [[emir]]s and the neighbouring [[Persian language|Persian-speaking peoples]] to the south. At its height, the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control [[Cumania]]. The Kazakh Khanate's territories would expand deep into Central Asia. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which had effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) hordes (''[[jüz]]''). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between east and west weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The [[Khiva Khanate]] used this opportunity and annexed the [[Mangyshlak Peninsula]]. Uzbek rule there lasted two centuries until the Russian arrival.

During the 17th century, the Kazakhs fought the [[Oirats]], a federation of western [[Mongols|Mongol]] tribes, including the [[Dzungar people|Dzungar]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Cultural-life#toc73648 |title=Kazakhstan to c. AD 1700 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811050147/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Cultural-life#toc73648 |archive-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 [[Kazakh-Dzungar Wars|war against the Dzungar Khanate]], following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territory. Under the leadership of [[Abul Khair Khan]], the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River in 1726 and at the [[Battle of Añyraqai]] in 1729.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid=306&ah=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 |title=Country Briefings: Kazakhstan |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=1 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208113054/http://www.economist.com/node/2282291?zid=306&ah=1b164dbd43b0cb27ba0d4c3b12a5e227 |archive-date=8 December 2015}}</ref>

[[Ablai Khan]] participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungar from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "''batyr''" ("hero") by the people. The Kazakhs suffered from the frequent raids against them by the Volga [[Kalmyks]]. The [[Kokand Khanate]] used the weakness of Kazakh jüzs after Dzungar and Kalmyk raids and conquered present Southeastern Kazakhstan, including [[Almaty]], the formal capital in the first quarter of the 19th century. The [[Emirate of Bukhara]] ruled [[Şymkent]] before the Russians gained dominance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Satubaldina |first=Assel |date=2018-01-17 |title=Şymkent – the city of medieval culture and vibrant modern lifestyle |url=https://astanatimes.com/2018/01/shymkent-the-city-of-medieval-culture-and-vibrant-modern-lifestyle/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107122740/https://astanatimes.com/2018/01/shymkent-the-city-of-medieval-culture-and-vibrant-modern-lifestyle/ |archive-date=7 January 2021 |access-date=2021-01-05 |website=The Astana Times}}</ref>

=== Russian Kazakhstan ===
[[File:Battle Cossacks with Kyrgyz 1826.JPG|thumb|[[Ural Cossacks]] skirmish with Kazakhs]]
[[File:Kazakhs 19th Century 4.jpg|thumb|Kazakh woman in wedding clothes, 19th century]]

In the first half of the 18th century, the [[Russian Empire]] constructed the {{Interlanguage link|Irtysh line|ru|Иртышская линия}}, a series of forty-six forts and ninety-six redoubts, including [[Omsk]] (1716), [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]] (1718), [[Pavlodar]] (1720), [[Orenburg]] (1743) and [[Petropavl]]ovsk (1752),<ref>"''Russian Colonization and the Genesis of Kazak National Consciousness''". S. Sabol (2003). Springer. p.27 {{ISBN|0230599427}}</ref> to prevent Kazakh and Oirat raids into Russian territory.<ref>"''Central Asia, 130 Years of Russian Dominance: A Historical Overview''". Edward A. Allworth, Edward Allworth (1994). Duke University Press. p. 10. {{ISBN|0822315211}}</ref> In the late 18th century the Kazakhs took advantage of [[Pugachev's Rebellion]], which was centred on the Volga area, to raid Russian and [[Volga Germans|Volga German]] settlements.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bodger |first1=Alan |title=The Kazakhs and the Pugachev Uprising in Russia, 1773-1775 |date=1988 |publisher=Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana University |isbn=9789999328128 |page=22}}</ref> In the 19th century, the [[Russian Empire]] began to expand its influence into Central Asia. The "[[Great Game]]" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the [[Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907]]. The [[tsar]]s effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.

The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" for dominance in the area against the [[British Empire]], which was extending its influence from the south in India and Southeast Asia. Russia built its first outpost, [[Orsk]], in 1735. Russia introduced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organisations.

Russia's efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakhs, and, by the 1860s, some Kazakhs resisted its rule. Russia had disrupted the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and people were suffering from starvation, with some Kazakh tribes being decimated. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle Kazakh culture.

From the 1890s onward, ever-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began [[Colonization|colonizing]] the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular, the province of [[Jetisu|Semirechye]]. The number of settlers rose still further once the [[Trans-Aral Railway]] from [[Orenburg]] to [[Tashkent]] was completed in 1906. A specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in [[St. Petersburg]] oversaw and encouraged the migration to expand Russian influence in the area. During the 19th century, about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan |title=Kazakhstan |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=16 December 1991 |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617101159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan |archive-date=17 June 2015}}</ref> [[Vasile Balabanov]] was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time.

The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of the [[Russian Empire]]. The most serious uprising, the [[Central Asian revolt of 1916|Central Asian revolt]], occurred in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and [[Cossacks|Cossack]] settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566451_8/Kazakhstan.html|title=Kazakhstan|encyclopedia=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia|date=2005y|archive-date=15 April 2005|access-date=29 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050415185833/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566451_8/Kazakhstan.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919.

=== Kazakh SSR ===
{{Main|Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic}}
[[File:Stanitsa Sofiiskaya.jpg|thumb|Stanitsa Sofiiskaya, [[Talgar]], 1920s]]
[[File:Young Pioneers in Kazakh SSR.jpg|thumb|[[Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union|Young Pioneers]] at a Young Pioneer camp in the Kazakh SSR]]

Following the [[October Revolution|collapse of central government]] in [[Saint Petersburg|Petrograd]] in November 1917, the Kazakhs (then in Russia officially referred to as "Kirghiz") experienced a brief period of autonomy (the [[Alash Autonomy]]) before eventually succumbing to the [[Bolsheviks]]' rule. On 26 August 1920, the [[Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–25)|Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic]] within the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR) was established. The Kirghiz ASSR included the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, but its administrative centre was the mainly Russian-populated town of [[Orenburg]]. In June 1925, the Kirghiz ASSR was renamed the [[Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazak ASSR]] and its administrative centre was transferred to the town of [[Kyzylorda]], and in April 1927 to [[Almaty|Alma-Ata]].

Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced [[collectivisation]] in the late 1920s and 1930s, brought [[famine]] and high fatalities, leading to unrest (see also: [[Famine in Kazakhstan of 1932–33]]).<ref>{{cite journal |url= http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060903203830/http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2.pdf|archive-date= 3 September 2006|title= The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin's Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives|author= Simon Ertz|date= 2005|journal= Stanford's Student Journal of Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies|volume= 1|pages= 1–12|access-date= 1 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Pianciola, Niccolò |url= http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file=1 |title= Famine in the Steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934 |journal= Cahiers du monde russe |year= 2004 |volume= 45 |pages= 137–192 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023090501/http://monderusse.revues.org/2623?file=1 |archive-date= 23 October 2015 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> During the 1930s, some members of the Kazakh intelligentsia were executed – as part of the [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|policies of political reprisals]] pursued by the Soviet government in Moscow.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

On 5 December 1936, the [[Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (whose territory by then corresponded to that of modern Kazakhstan) was detached from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR) and made the [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic]], a full [[Republics of the Soviet Union|union republic]] of the USSR, one of eleven such republics at the time, along with the [[Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic]].

The republic was one of the destinations for exiled and convicted persons, as well as for mass resettlements, or deportations affected by the central USSR authorities during the 1930s and 1940s, such as approximately 400,000 [[Volga Germans]] deported from the [[Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] in September–October 1941, and then later the [[Greeks in Kazakhstan|Greeks]] and [[Deportation of the Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatars]]. Deportees and prisoners were interned in some of the biggest [[Gulag|Soviet labour camps]] (the Gulag), including [[Akmol|ALZhIR]] camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of the people".<ref>[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 Children of the gulag live with amnesia]{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223853/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 |date=3 March 2016 }}, ''Taipei Times'', 1 January 2007</ref> Many moved due to the policy of [[population transfer in the Soviet Union]] and others were forced into [[involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union]].

[[File:International conference on Primary Health Care - Conferencia Internacional sobre Atención Primaria de Salud - Almaty -1978.jpg|thumb|The International Conference on Primary Health Care in 1978, known as the [[Alma Ata Declaration|Alma-Ata Declaration]]]]

The [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Soviet-German War]] (1941–1945) led to an increase in industrialisation and [[mineral extraction]] in support of the war effort. At the time of [[Joseph Stalin]]'s death in 1953, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural economy. In 1953, Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] initiated the [[Virgin Lands Campaign]] designed to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernisations under Soviet leader [[Leonid Brezhnev]] (in power 1964–1982), it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Because of the decades of privation, war and resettlement, by 1959 the [[Kazakhs]] had become a minority, making up 30 percent of the population. Ethnic [[Russians]] accounted for 43 percent.<ref>Flynn, Moya (1994). ''[{{GBurl|id=YLeAxHLmgR8C|p=15}} Migrant Resettlement in the Russian Federation: Reconstructing 'Homes' and 'Homelands']'' Anthem Press. p. 15. {{ISBN|1-84331-117-8}}</ref>

In 1947, the USSR, as part of its [[Soviet atomic bomb project|atomic bomb project]], founded an [[Semipalatinsk Test Site|atomic bomb test site]] near the north-eastern town of [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]], where the [[RDS-1|first Soviet nuclear bomb]] test was conducted in 1949. Hundreds of nuclear tests were conducted until 1989 with adverse consequences for the nation's environment and population.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans-painful-nuclear-past-looms-large-over-its-energy-future/275795/|title=Kazakhstan's Painful Nuclear Past Looms Large Over Its Energy Future|last=Keenan|first=Jillian|newspaper=The Atlantic|language=en-US|access-date=27 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202233241/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/05/kazakhstans-painful-nuclear-past-looms-large-over-its-energy-future/275795/|archive-date=2 February 2017}}</ref> The [[Anti-nuclear movement in Kazakhstan]] became a major political force in the late 1980s.

In April 1961, [[Baikonur]] became the springboard of [[Vostok 1]], a spacecraft with Soviet cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]] being the first human to enter space.

In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called the [[Jeltoqsan]] riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the [[General Secretary|First Secretary]] of the [[Communist Party of Kazakhstan|Communist Party]] of the Kazakh SSR [[Dinmukhamed Konayev]] with [[Gennady Kolbin]] from the [[Russian SFSR]]. Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed, and many demonstrators were jailed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Putz|first=Catherine|title=1986: Kazakhstan's Other Independence Anniversary|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986-kazakhstans-other-independence-anniversary/|access-date=2021-01-05|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US|archive-date=28 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214923/https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/1986-kazakhstans-other-independence-anniversary/|url-status=live}}</ref> In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and found expression under Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s policy of ''[[glasnost]]'' ("openness").

{{anchor|Independence}}
=== Independence ===
Kazakhstan declared its [[sovereignty]] within the Soviet Union on 25 October 1990. Following the failed August 1991 [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup attempt]] in Moscow, the country proclaimed full independence on 16 December 1991, becoming the last Soviet republic to do so. Ten days after Kazakhstan's declaration, the Soviet Union itself dissolved. This period marked a significant turning point in Kazakhstan's history, as it embarked on a new political and economic path separate from Moscow's control.

[[Nursultan Nazarbayev]], the communist-era leader of Kazakhstan, became the country's first president. Under his leadership, Kazakhstan transitioned from a Soviet-era planned economy to a market economy, focusing on privatization and foreign investments. The emphasis on economic reform, particularly in the oil sector, helped Kazakhstan become one of Central Asia's most economically powerful nations. By 2006, Kazakhstan contributed around 60% of the region's GDP, primarily through its oil exports. However, political reforms lagged behind these economic strides, and Nazarbayev maintained an authoritarian rule throughout his presidency.<ref name="time" />

In 1997, Nazarbayev [[Capital relocation in Kazakhstan|moved the capital]] from Almaty, the country's largest city, to [[Astana]] (later renamed Nur-Sultan in 2019),<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-03-20 |title=Nursultan: Kazakhstan renames capital Astana after ex-president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47638619 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225212541/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47638619 |archive-date=25 December 2019 |access-date=2021-01-05 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> a decision that symbolized the government's desire to modernize and assert control over the country's vast territories. The capital city change was part of broader efforts to establish a new national identity and shift the political center from the old Soviet-era heartlands.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital change: A look at some countries that have moved their capitals – Nigeria: Lagos to Abuja |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/capital-change-a-look-at-some-countries-that-have-moved-their-capitals/kazakhstan-almaty-to-nur-sultan/slideshow/69183884.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420174234/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/capital-change-a-look-at-some-countries-that-have-moved-their-capitals/kazakhstan-almaty-to-nur-sultan/slideshow/69183884.cms |archive-date=20 April 2021 |access-date=2021-01-05 |website=The Economic Times}}</ref>

Kazakhstan's political landscape during Nazarbayev's rule was characterized by limited political pluralism. In the 2004 parliamentary elections, the pro-government Otan Party, led by Nazarbayev, dominated the Majilis (the lower house of parliament). Other parties sympathetic to the president, such as the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party (founded by Nazarbayev's daughter), secured most of the remaining seats, while opposition parties struggled to gain representation. International observers, including the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, criticized the elections for not meeting democratic standards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary Elections, 19 September and 3 October 2004 |url=https://www.osce.org/node/57857 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108211859/https://www.osce.org/node/57857 |archive-date=8 January 2021 |access-date=2021-01-05 |website=[[osce.org]] |language=en}}</ref>

Despite claims of progress toward democracy, Kazakhstan's political system remained authoritarian well into the 21st century.<ref>Nazarbayev, Nursultan (28 March 2011). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans-steady-progress-toward-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC_story.html OP Ed: "Kazakhstan's steady progress toward democracy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210234358/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans-steady-progress-toward-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC_story.html|date=10 December 2015}}, ''Washington Post''</ref> In 2010, the country was still ranked as an [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian regime]] on ''[[The Economist]]'''s [[The Economist Democracy Index|Democracy Index]].<ref name="index2010" /><ref name="index2022" /> Nazarbayev, who had ruled since independence, announced his resignation on 19 March 2019, after nearly three decades in power.<ref>{{cite news |date=19 March 2019 |title=Kazakh leader resigns after three decades |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47628854 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190425061650/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-47628854 |archive-date=25 April 2019 |access-date=19 March 2019 |work=BBC News}}</ref> His successor, [[Kassym-Jomart Tokayev]], won the 2019 presidential election and took office on 12 June 2019.<ref>{{cite news |date=10 June 2019 |title=Nazarbayev protégé wins Kazakhstan elections marred by protests |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190610-kazakhstan-presidential-election-tokayev-nazarbayev-protesters-arrested |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922092114/https://www.france24.com/en/20190610-kazakhstan-presidential-election-tokayev-nazarbayev-protesters-arrested |archive-date=22 September 2022 |access-date=16 February 2022 |work=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=10 June 2019 |title=CEC announces preliminary results of 2019 Presidential Election in Kazakhstan |url=https://www.inform.kz/en/cec-announces-preliminary-results-of-2019-presidential-election-in-kazakhstan_a3536331 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815174133/https://www.inform.kz/en/cec-announces-preliminary-results-of-2019-presidential-election-in-kazakhstan_a3536331 |archive-date=15 August 2019 |access-date=15 August 2019 |website=inform.kz}}</ref> Tokayev's first official act was to rename the capital city to Nur-Sultan, in honor of Nazarbayev’s legacy.<ref>{{cite news |date=20 March 2019 |title=Kazakhstan renames capital as new president takes office |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190320-kazakhstan-capital-new-president-astana-nursultan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216140002/https://www.france24.com/en/20190320-kazakhstan-capital-new-president-astana-nursultan |archive-date=16 February 2022 |access-date=16 February 2022 |work=France 24 |language=en}}</ref>

However, Tokayev's presidency faced significant challenges. In January 2022, Kazakhstan was gripped by large-scale protests following a sharp rise in fuel prices.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-05 |title=Kazakhstan protests: government resigns amid rare outbreak of unrest. |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan-president-declares-state-of-emergency-in-protest-hit-areas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105122522/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/04/kazakhstan-president-declares-state-of-emergency-in-protest-hit-areas |archive-date=5 January 2022 |access-date=2022-01-05 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> The unrest quickly escalated, and Tokayev responded decisively by assuming control of the country's Security Council, removing Nazarbayev from the post and consolidating his own power. This marked a dramatic shift in Kazakhstan's political dynamics, with Tokayev signaling a departure from the old Nazarbayev-era system.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kazakhstan's Nazarbayev handed over security council job on his own will: Spokesman |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kazakhstan-s-nazarbayev-handed-over-security-council-job-on-his-own-will-spokesman/2469352 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216143609/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kazakhstan-s-nazarbayev-handed-over-security-council-job-on-his-own-will-spokesman/2469352 |archive-date=16 February 2022 |access-date=16 February 2022 |work=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref> In September 2022, the capital's name was reverted back to Astana, a move seen as part of the broader efforts to distance the country from the former president’s influence.<ref>{{cite news |date=14 September 2022 |title=Kazakhstan to change name of capital from Nur-sultan back to Astana |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan-to-change-name-of-capital-from-nur-sultan-back-to-astana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914002239/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan-to-change-name-of-capital-from-nur-sultan-back-to-astana |archive-date=14 September 2022 |access-date=21 September 2022 |work=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>