Editing Kandahar (section)

==History==
{{Quote box |width=25em |align=right |title_bg=#B0C4DE
|title=Timeline of Kandahar ([[Alexandria Arachosia]])<br><small>Historical affiliations</small>
|fontsize=80% |quote={{Noflag|[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]]}} 330 BC–312 BC<br>
{{Noflag|[[Seleucid Empire]]}} 312 BC–304 BC<br>
{{Noflag|[[Maurya Empire]]}} 304 BC–204 BC<br>
{{Noflag|[[Seleucid Empire]]}} 204 BC–c. 180 BC<br>
{{Noflag|[[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]}} 180 BC – c. 150 BC<br>
{{Noflag|[[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Yavana Kingdom]]}} c. 150 BC–142 BC<br>
{{Noflag|[[Indo-Scythians]]}} 142 BC–32 BC<br>
{{Noflag|[[Parthian Empire]]}} 32 BC–19 CE<br>
{{Noflag|[[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]]}} 19–36<br>
{{Noflag|[[Kushan Empire]]}} 36–230<br>
{{Noflag|[[Sasanian Empire]]}} 230–645<br>
{{Noflag|[[Rashidun Caliphate]]}} 645–661<br>
{{Noflag|[[Umayyad Caliphate]]}} 661–750<br>
{{flagicon image|Abbasid banner.svg}} [[Abbasid Caliphate]] 750–861<br>
{{Noflag|[[Saffarid dynasty]]}} 861–977<br>
{{Noflag|[[Ghaznavid Empire]]}} 977–1175<br>
{{Noflag|[[Ghurid dynasty]]}} 1175–1207<br>
{{Noflag|[[Khwarazmian Empire]]}} 1207–1222<br>
{{Noflag|[[Mongol Empire]]}} 1222–1256<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ilkhanate.svg}} [[Ilkhanate]] 1256–1347<br>
{{Noflag|[[Kart dynasty]]}} 1347–1382<br>
{{flagicon image|Catalan Atlas, Flag of Cathay.svg}} [[Timurid Empire]] 1382–1507<br>
{{flagicon image|Alam of the Mughal Empire.svg}} [[Mughal Empire]] 1507–1649<br>
{{flagicon image|Safavid Flag.svg}} [[Safavid Empire]] 1649–1711<br>
{{flagicon image|Black flag.svg}} [[Hotak dynasty]] 1711–1738<br>
{{flagicon image|Afsharid Imperial Standard (3 Stripes).svg}} [[Afsharid Empire]] 1738–1747<br>
{{Noflag|[[Durrani Empire]]}} 1747–1818<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1880–1901).svg}} [[Principality of Kandahar]] 1818–1839<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of the United Kingdom (1-2).svg}} [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] ([[Company Raj]]) 1839–1842<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1880–1901).svg}} [[Principality of Kandahar]] 1842–1855<br>
{{flag|Afghanistan}} 1855–present
}}

===Prehistory===
{{Further|Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan}}
Excavations of prehistoric sites by archaeologists such as [[Louis Dupree (professor)|Louis Dupree]] and others suggest that the region around Kandahar is one of the oldest known human settlements known so far.
{{Blockquote|Early peasant farming villages came into existence in Afghanistan ca. 5000 B.C., or 7000 years ago. Deh Morasi Ghundai, the first prehistoric site to be excavated in Afghanistan, lies {{cvt|27|km|0}} southwest of Kandahar (Dupree, 1951). Another [[Bronze Age]] village mound site with multiroomed mud-brick buildings dating from the same period sits nearby at Said Qala (J. Shaffer, 1970). Second millennium B.C. Bronze Age [[pottery]], copper and [[bronze]] horse trappings and stone seals were found in the lowermost levels in the nearby cave called Shamshir Ghar (Dupree, 1950). In the [[Seistan]], southwest of these Kandahar sites, two teams of American archaeologists discovered sites relating to the 2nd millennium B.C. (G. Dales, [[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology|University Museum, University of Pennsylvania]], 1969, 1971; W, Trousdale, [[Smithsonian Institution]], 1971 – 76). Stylistically the finds from Deh Morasi and Said Qala tie in with those of pre-[[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley]] sites and with those of comparable age on the [[Iranian Plateau]] and in Central Asia, indicating cultural contacts during this very early age.<ref Name=Dupree3>{{Cite book|title=An Historical Guide to Afghanistan|last1=Dupree|first1=Nancy Hatch|volume=First Edition|year=1970|publisher=Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization|location=Kabul|page=492|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T__DHAAACAAJ|access-date=17 June 2012|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507050410/https://books.google.com/books?id=T__DHAAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>|[[Nancy Dupree|N. Dupree]]|1971}}

British excavations in the 1970s discovered that Kandahar existed as a large fortified city during the early 1st millennium BC; while this earliest period at Kandahar has not been precisely dated via [[radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon]], ceramic comparisons with the latest period at the major [[Bronze Age]] city of [[Mundigak]] have suggested an approximate time-frame of 1000 to 750 BC.<ref name="books.google.com"/> This fortified city became an important outpost of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in the 6th to 4th centuries BC, and formed part of the province of [[Arachosia]].<ref name="iranicaonline.org"/>

===Ancient history===
{{Further|Alexandria in Arachosia}}

'''Foundation of city and Greek invasion'''

The now known "[[Old Kandahar]]" was founded in 330 BC by [[Alexander the Great]], near the site of the ancient city of [[Mundigak]] (established around 3000 BC era). Mundigak served as the provincial capital of Arachosia and was ruled by the [[Medes]] followed by the Achaemenids until the arrival of the Macedonians. The main inhabitants of Arachosia were the ''[[Pakthas|Pakhtas]]'',<ref>Map of the [[Median Empire]] from the University of Texas in Austin, showing ''Pactyans'' in what is now Kandahar, Afghanistan&nbsp;... [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/oriental_empire.jpg Link] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031004232323/http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/oriental_empire.jpg |date=4 October 2003 }}</ref> an ancient Indo-Iranian tribe, who might have been among the ancestors of today's [[Pashtuns]]. Kandahar was named ''[[Alexandria in Arachosia|Alexandria]]'', a name given to some cities that Alexander founded during his conquests.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexandria/alexandria_arachosia.html|title=Alexandria in Arachosia|first=Jona|last=Lendering|publisher=LIVIUS – Articles on Ancient History|access-date=9 January 2011|archive-date=15 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615230642/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexandria/alexandria_arachosia.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Kandahar was a frequent target for conquest because of its strategic location in Asia, controlling the main trade route linking the [[Indian subcontinent]] with the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref>Mentioned in Bopearachchi, "Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques", p52. Original text in paragraph 19 of [http://www.parthia.com/parthian_stations.htm#PARTHIAN_STATIONS Parthian stations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531124126/http://www.parthia.com/parthian_stations.htm#PARTHIAN_STATIONS |date=31 May 2020 }}</ref> The territory became part of the [[Seleucid Empire]] after the death of Alexander. It is mentioned by [[Strabo]] that a treaty of friendship was established eventually between the Greeks and the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryas]] (Indians).<ref name=Dupree>{{cite web|url=http://www.aisk.org/aisk/NHDAHGTK05.php|title=An Historical Guide to Kabul&nbsp;– The Story of Kabul|author=[[Nancy Hatch Dupree]] / Aḥmad ʻAlī Kuhzād|publisher=American International School of Kabul|year=1972|access-date=18 September 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830031416/http://www.aisk.org/aisk/NHDAHGTK05.php|archive-date=30 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html|title=Maurya dynasty|first=Jona|last=Lendering|publisher=LIVIUS – Articles on Ancient History|access-date=9 January 2011|archive-date=26 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226183742/https://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The city eventually became part of the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] (250 BC – 125 BC), and continued that way for two hundred years under the later [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]] (180 BC – 10 AD). <!--(text section put into comment: This is not linked to Kandahar but Bagram (?) King [[Menander I]] (165 BC – 135 BC) of the Indo-Greek Kingdom practiced [[Greco-Buddhism]] and is recorded by the [[Mahavamsa]] (Chap. XXIX<ref name="Click chapter XXIX">Full text of the Mahavamsa [http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Click chapter XXIX]</ref>) to have sent "a Greek ("[[Yona]]") Buddhist head monk" named [[Mahadharmaraksita]] (literally translated as 'Great Teacher/Preserver of the Dharma') with 30,000 Buddhist monks from "the Greek city of Alasandra" (possibly [[Alexandria in the Caucasus]], as Bagram was known under the Greeks) to Sri Lanka for the dedication of [[Ruwanwelisaya|Great Stupa]] Buddhist temple in [[Anuradhapura]]. -->
[[File:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by Emperor [[Ashoka]], from [[Chilzina]] in Kandahar, 3rd century BC.]]

While the [[Diadochi]] were warring amongst themselves, the Mauryas were developing in the northern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The founder of the empire, [[Chandragupta Maurya]], confronted a Macedonian invasion force led by [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus I]] in 305 BC and following a brief conflict, an agreement was reached as Seleucus ceded [[Gandhara]] and Arachosia and areas south of [[Bagram]] to the Mauryas. During the 120 years of the Mauryas in southern Afghanistan, Buddhism was introduced and eventually become one of the major religions alongside Zoroastrianism.

Inscriptions made by Emperor [[Ashoka]], a fragment of [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edict 13]] in Greek, as well as a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka the great used the word [[Eusebeia]] ("[[Piety]]") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "[[Dharma]]" of his other Edicts written in [[Prakrit]].

===Medieval history===
{{Further|Islamic conquest of Afghanistan}}

'''Islamic conquest'''

Between the 7th and 9th century, the Kandahar region was ruled by the [[Zunbil dynasty]] and considered part of the [[Indian Subcontinent]], though it was an Eastern Iranic realm which followed [[Zurvanism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wink|first=André|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&dq=it+was+clear+that+zunbils+ruled+over+a+predominately+indian+realm&pg=PA114|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries|date=2002|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|pages=114|language=en|access-date=5 April 2023|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405181852/https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&dq=it+was+clear+that+zunbils+ruled+over+a+predominately+indian+realm&pg=PA114|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 7th century [[AD]], [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan|Arab armies conquered the region]]  but failed to convert the entire 
population to Islam.The leader of the expedition was [[Abbad ibn Ziyad]], who governed Sijistan between 673 and 681.<ref>{{EI2|article=ʿAbbād b. Ziyād|last=Zetterstéen|first=K. V.|volume=1|page=5}}</ref> In AD 870, [[Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari|Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari]], a local ruler of the [[Saffarids|Saffarid dynasty]], conquered Kandahar and environs  in the name of Islam.

'''Ghanavids'''

It is believed that the Zunbil dynasty governed the Kandahar region from the 7th century until the late 9th century AD.<ref>Excavations at Kandahar 1974 & 1975 (Society for South Asian Studies Monograph) by Anthony McNicoll.{{blockquote|The Zunbils ruled in the Kandahar area for nearly 250 years until the late 9th century AD.}}</ref> Kandahar was taken by [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Sultan Mahmud]] of [[Ghazni]] in the 11th century followed by the [[Ghurids]] of [[Ghor]].

Kandahar appears to have been renamed ''Teginābād'' in the 10th–12th centuries, but the origin of the new name is unclear. During this period, nearby [[Panjwayi District|Panjway]] served as the administrative center for the area. However, Kandahar was of much more strategic importance, to the extent that [[Minhaj-i-Siraj]] attributes the downfall of the [[Ghaznavids]] to the loss of Kandahar. The city's name was changed back to Kandahar by the 13th century, after [[Ala al-Din Husayn|Ala ad-Din Husayn Jahansuz]] sacked [[Lashkari Bazar]], near [[Lashkargah|Bost]]. Again, the reason for the name change is not clear.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Inaba|first1=Minoru|title=KANDAHAR iii. Early Islamic Period|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kandahar-early-islamic-period|website=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=21 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221093955/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kandahar-early-islamic-period|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Mongols'''
[[File:The Surrender of Kandahar.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]] from [[Padshahnama]] depicting the surrender of the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] garrison at what is now [[Old Kandahar]] in 1638 to the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] army of [[Shah Jahan]]]]
Kandahar was besieged by a [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] army in 1221, although [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]] defeated them. In 1251, upon accession to the Mongol throne, [[Möngke Khan]] granted Kandahar, along with other lands in Afghanistan, to [[Shams-uddin Muhammad Kurt I|Shams ad-Din Mohammad Kart]] of the [[Kart dynasty]]. However, the city is mentioned as being under [[Chagatai Khanate|Chagatai]] control in 1260–61; Kandahar didn't come under Kart control until 1281. Later, in 1318, a Chagatai prince raised an army from Kandahar against the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid]] governor of [[Sistan]].<ref name="KANDAHAR iv. From The Mongol Invasi">{{cite web|last1=Matthee|first1=Rudi|last2=Mashita|first2=Hiroyuki|title=KANDAHAR iv. From The Mongol Invasion Through The Safavid Era|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kandahar-from-the-mongol-invasion-through-the-safavid-era|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|access-date=9 March 2020|archive-date=28 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028132345/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kandahar-from-the-mongol-invasion-through-the-safavid-era|url-status=live}}</ref> Kandahar was described by [[Ibn Battuta]] in 1333 as a large and prosperous town three nights journey from [[Ghazni]].<ref name=Batutta>{{Cite book|title=Travels in Asia and Africa, 1325–1354|author=Ibn Battuta|edition=reprint, illustrated|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-34473-5|page=179|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA179|access-date=4 August 2012|archive-date=2 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702020838/https://books.google.com/books?id=zKqn_CWTxYEC&pg=PA179|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Timur|Tamerlane]], founder of the [[Timurid Empire]], captured Kandahar in 1383. He appointed his grandson [[Pir Muhammad bin Jahangir Mirza|Pir Muhammad]] as governor of Kandahar in 1390.<ref name="KANDAHAR iv. From The Mongol Invasi"/> Following his death in 1405, the city was ruled by other Timurid governors. Kandahar was entrusted to the [[Arghun Dynasty|Arghuns]] in the late 15th century, who eventually achieved independence from the Timurids. [[Guru Nanak]], the founder of [[Sikhism]], is believed to have visited the town (c. 1521 AD) during his important journey between Hindustan and [[Mecca]] in Arabia.

'''Mughal and Safavid Era'''

Tamerlane's descendant, [[Babur]], the founder of the [[Mughal Empire]], annexed Kandahar in 1508. In 1554, Babur's son, [[Humayun]], handed it over to the [[Safavid]] [[Shah Tahmasp]] in return of 12,000 soldiers he received from the Shah to reconquer India. In 1595, [[Humayun]]'s son [[Akbar the Great]] reconquered the city by diplomacy. Akbar died in 1605 and when this news reached the Persian court, Shah Abbas ordered his army to besiege the city which continued until early 1606 and finally failed due to the reinforcements sent by the Mughal Emperor [[Jahangir]] that forced the Safavid retreat. In the [[Mughal–Safavid War (1649–1653)|Mughal–Safavid War]], Kandahar was once again lost to the Safavids. In 1698, Balochs under [[Samandar Khan]] and [[Mir Abdullah Khan Ahmadzai]] of [[Kalat State]] captured Kandahar again. Kandahar was regarded as important to the Mughal Empire because it was one of the gateways to India, and Mughal control over Kandahar helped to prevent foreign intrusions.<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History|publisher=Primus Books|year=2013|isbn=978-93-80607-34-4|pages=151, 162, 169–170}}</ref>

The memory of the wars fought over Kandahar at this time is preserved in the epic poem ''Qandahār-nāma'' ("The Campaign Against Qandahār"), a major work of [[Saib Tabrizi]] which is a classic of Persian literature.

===Modern (1709–present)===
{{Further|Hotak dynasty|Durrani Empire}}
[[File:KandaharMosque02.JPG|thumb|The Mausoleum of [[Mirwais Hotak]]]]
[[Mirwais Hotak]], chief of the [[Ghilji]] tribe, revolted in 1709 by killing [[George XI of Kartli|Gurgin Khan]], an ethnic [[Georgian people|Georgian]] subject and governor of the Shia [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] Persians. After establishing the [[Hotak dynasty]] in Kandahar, Mirwais and his army successfully defeated subsequent expeditions by [[Kaikhosro of Kartli|Kay Khusraw]] and Rustam Khán. Mirwais resisted attempts by the Persian government who were seeking to convert the Afghans from [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] to the Shia sect of Islam. He died of a natural death in November 1715 and was succeeded by his brother [[Abdul Aziz Hotak|Abdul Aziz]], but after being suspected of giving Kandahar's sovereignty back to the Persians he was killed by his nephew [[Mahmud Hotak]].<ref name="Browne29">{{Cite web|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=29|title=AN OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF PERSIA DURING THE LAST TWO CENTURIES (A.D. 1722–1922)|page=29|work=Edward Granville Browne|publisher=Packard Humanities Institute|location=London|access-date=24 September 2010|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011103441/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=90001014&ct=29|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Malleson">{{Cite book|title=History of Afghanistan, from the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878|last1=Malleson|first1=George Bruce|year=1878|publisher=Elibron.com|location=London|isbn=1-4021-7278-8|page=227|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C&pg=PA227|access-date=27 September 2010|archive-date=16 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416125629/https://books.google.com/books?id=pqNGBEmHUd4C&pg=PA227|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1722, Mahmud led an army of Afghans to the Safavid capital [[Isfahan]] and proclaimed himself King of Persia. The [[Hotak dynasty]] was eventually removed from power by a new Persian ruler, [[Nader Shah]]. In 1738, Nader Shah invaded Afghanistan and destroyed the now ''[[Old Kandahar]]'', which was held by [[Hussain Hotak]] and his [[Ghilji]] tribes.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/21392/Last-Afghan-empire|title=Last Afghan empire|encyclopedia=Louis Dupree, Nancy H. Dupree and others|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|access-date=24 September 2010|archive-date=30 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130150119/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/21392/Last-Afghan-empire|url-status=live}}</ref> In the meantime, Nader Shah freed [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Khan]] (later [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]) and his brother Zulfikar who were held prisoners by the Hotak ruler. Before leaving southern Afghanistan for Delhi in India, Nader Shah laid out the foundation for a new town to be built next to the destroyed ancient city, naming it "[[Naderabad, Kandahar|Naderabad]]". His rule ended in June 1747 after being murdered by his Persian guards.<ref>''The Afghans'' (2002) by [[Willem Vogelsang]]. Page 228.</ref>
[[File:Kandahar fourthcity durrani.jpg|thumb|This lithograph is taken from plate 23 of ''Afghaunistan'' by Lieutenant [[James Rattray]], 1848. He sketched Kandahar in December 1841 from the rooftop of the former residence of the province's governor, Sirdar Meer Dil Khaun, who was brother to the Emir. Pictured on the left is the tomb of Ahmed Shah Durrani and on the right the Bala Hissar (fort) and citadel.]]
[[File:Coronation of Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747 by Breshna.jpg|left|thumb|Painting by [[Abdul Ghafoor Breshna]] depicting the 1747 [[coronation]] of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], who is regarded as the [[List of national founders|founding father]] of Afghanistan ([[Father of the Nation]]).]]
Ahmad Shah Durrani, chief of the [[Durrani]] tribe, gained control of Kandahar and made it the capital of his new [[Durrani Empire|Afghan Empire]] in October 1747. Initially, Ahmad Shah had trouble finding land on which to build his city. His own tribe had no extensive lands and others who had, such as the Alikozai and Barakzai, refused to give up their lands. Only the Popalzai finally offered him his pick of their lands. The foundations for the city were laid in June 1761.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dupree|first=Nancy|date=1977|title=An Historical Guide to Afghanistan|publisher=Jagra, Ltd.|page=281}}</ref> Once begun, the city was built with grand proportions. It was laid out in the form of a regular rectangle with a circumference of three miles; walls 30 feet thick at the bottom and 15 feet at the top, rose 27 feet high to enclose it. Outside, the walls were ringed by a moat 24 feet wide. Six mammoth gateways pierced these walls: the Eid Gah Gate on the north, the Shikarpur Gate on the south; the Herat and Top Khana Gates on the west; and, the Bar Durrani and Kabul Gates on the east. At its peak, Ahmad Shah's empire included present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, the [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]] and [[Quhistan|Kohistan]] provinces of Iran, along with [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in India. In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired and died from a natural cause.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani|title=Aḥmad Shah Durrānī|publisher=[[Britannica.com]] Online Version|access-date=9 January 2011|archive-date=4 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404104909/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/10162/Ahmad-Shah-Durrani|url-status=live}}</ref> A new city was laid out by Ahmad Shah and is dominated by his mausoleum, which is adjacent to the [[Mosque of the Cloak of the Prophet Mohammed|Mosque of the Cloak]] in the centre of the city. By 1776, his eldest son [[Timur Shah Durrani|Timur Shah]] had transferred Afghanistan's main capital, due to several conflicts with various Pashtun tribes, from Kandahar to Kabul, where the [[Durrani]] legacy continued.<ref Name=Dupree3/>

From 1818 to 1855, Kandahar was ruled by half-brothers of [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] as an [[Principality of Qandahar|independent principality]]. In September 1826, [[Syed Ahmad Barelvi|Syed Ahmad Shaheed]]'s followers arrived to Kandahar in search of volunteers to help them wage [[jihad]] against the [[Sikh Empire|Sikh]] invaders to what is now Pakistan. Led by [[Ranjit Singh]], the [[Sikhs]] had captured several of Afghanistan's territories in the east, including what is now [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] and [[Kashmir]]. More than 400 local Kandahar warriors assembled themselves for the jihad. Sayed Din Mohammad Kandharai was appointed as their leader.

'''British war'''
[[File:Kandahar-1881.jpg|thumb|[[British Raj|British-Indian]] invading forces at Kandahar after the 1880 [[Battle of Kandahar (1880)|Battle of Kandahar]], during the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]]. The large defensive wall around the city was finally removed in the early 1930s by the order of King [[Mohammed Nadir Shah|Nader Khan]], the father of King [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]].]]
[[British Raj|British-led Indian forces]] from neighbouring [[British India]] invaded the city in 1839, during the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]], but withdrew in 1842. In November 1855, Dost Mohammad Khan conquered Kandahar. The British and Indian forces returned in 1878 during the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]]. They emerged from the city in July 1880 to confront the forces of [[Mohammad Ayub Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)|Ayub Khan]], but were defeated at the [[Battle of Maiwand]]. They were again forced to withdraw a few years later, despite winning the [[Battle of Kandahar (1880)|Battle of Kandahar]].

Kandahar remained peaceful for the next 100 years, except during 1929 when loyalists of [[Habibullah Kalakani]] (Bache Saqqaw) placed the fortified city on lock-down and began torturing its population. Nobody was allowed to enter or leave from within the city's tall defensive walls, and as a result of this many people suffered after running out of food supplies. This lasted until October 1929 when [[Mohammed Nadir Shah|Nadir Khan]] and his Afghan army came to eliminate Kalakani, known as the Tajik bandit from the village of [[Kalakan]] in northern Kabul Province.

During [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]]'s rule, the city slowly began expanding by adding modern style streets and housing schemes. Although Kandahar remained less international than Kabul, with fewer foreigners in residence and thus no market for coffee, jam, potatoes, or other European produce, a modest German community took root there in the 1930s. Engineers and factory managers, accompanied by their spouses, arrived to supervise wool-processing plants. A Siemens electrical station powered these emerging industries, signaling a step toward the broader modernization taking shape across Afghanistan during this period.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crews|first=Robert D.|title=Afghan Modern: The History of a Global Nation|date=2015|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-49574-6|edition=|location=Cambridge, MA|pages=161|chapter=Seduced by Capital}}</ref>
[[File:1973-12-08 Kandahar (14).jpg|thumb|Street in the city, 1973]]
In the 1960s, during the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, [[Kandahar International Airport]] was built by the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] next to the city. The U.S. also completed several other major projects in Kandahar and in other parts of southern Afghanistan. In the meantime, Soviet engineers were busy building major infrastructures in other parts of the country, such as [[Bagram Airfield]] and [[Kabul International Airport]].

During the 1980s, [[Soviet–Afghan War]], Kandahar city (and the province as a whole) witnessed heavy fighting as it became a centre of resistance as the [[mujahideen]] forces waged a strong [[guerrilla warfare]] against the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Soviet-backed government]], who tightly held on control of the city. Government and Soviet troops surrounded the city and subjected it to heavy air bombardment in which many civilians lost their lives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get5.cgi?directory=fall99%2F&filename=WESTERMA.htm#39|title=The Limits of Soviet Airpower: The Failure of Military Coercion in Afghanistan, 1979–89|work=Edward B. Westermann|publisher=[[University of New Brunswick]]|access-date=9 January 2011|archive-date=5 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605194158/http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JCS/bin/get5.cgi?directory=fall99%2F&filename=WESTERMA.htm#39|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 1982 indiscriminate shelling and bombing by the Soviets killed hundreds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/node/22652/print-display|title=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=11 January 2018|archive-date=12 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180112100834/http://www.heritage.org/node/22652/print-display|url-status=unfit}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/08/world/soviet-reprisals-on-afghans-called-fierce.html|title=Soviet Reprisals on Afghans Called Fierce|newspaper=The New York Times|date=8 March 1982|last1=Middleton|first1=Drew|access-date=29 January 2018|archive-date=12 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180112044330/http://www.nytimes.com/1982/03/08/world/soviet-reprisals-on-afghans-called-fierce.html|url-status=live}}</ref> 300 civilians were killed during Soviet bombings in July 1984.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/07/24/Soviet-forces-bombed-the-city-of-Kandahar-in-southern/5417459489600/|title=Soviet forces bombed the city of Kandahar in southern|access-date=11 January 2018|archive-date=12 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180112042626/https://www.upi.com/Archives/1984/07/24/Soviet-forces-bombed-the-city-of-Kandahar-in-southern/5417459489600/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was under siege again in April 1986.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/19a6eb5d553820d0143d100366f9cee1|title=Soviet-Afghan Offensive Destroys Rebel Stronghold|website=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=7 June 2020|archive-date=7 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607155106/https://apnews.com/19a6eb5d553820d0143d100366f9cee1|url-status=live}}</ref> The city's population was reduced from 200,000 before the war to no more than 25,000 inhabitants, following a months-long campaign of carpet bombing and bulldozing by the Soviets and Afghan communist soldiers in 1987.{{sfn|Kaplan|2008|p=188}} Kandahar International Airport was used by the [[Soviet Army]] during their ten-year troop placement in the country. The city also became a battle ground for the US and Pakistani-backed forces against the pro-Communist government of Afghanistan.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{Cite web|date=9 December 2001|title=Kandahar on brink of chaos as warlords ready for battle|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/dec/09/afghanistan.peterbeaumont|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104175515/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/dec/09/afghanistan.peterbeaumont|archive-date=4 January 2019|access-date=4 January 2019|website=[[TheGuardian.com]]}}</ref>

Kandahar underwent a complete sociopolitical collapse in the early 1990s, driven in part by the divide-and-rule tactics of the communist governor-general, [[Nur ul-Haq Ulumi]], who manipulated rival mujahideen factions against each other, and by the rampant greed within both the communist and mujahideen militias.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Moiz|first=Ibrahim|title=The True Story of the Taliban: Emirate and Insurgency, 1994–2021|date=2024|publisher=The Other Press|isbn=9798336042269|location=Kuala Lumpur|pages=47–53|oclc=1458059551}}</ref> After the Soviet withdrawal and the collapse of [[Mohammad Najibullah|Najibullah]]'s government in 1992, Kandahar fell to local mujahideen commander, [[Gul Agha Sherzai]]. However Sherzai lacked authority against other local commanders which led to lawlessness in the city,<ref name="theguardian.com" /> and fighting in 1993.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Zaeef|first1=Mohammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfGlVzNltF8C&pg=PT377|title=My life with the Taliban|date=7 August 2012|publisher=Hachette India|isbn=9789350094136|access-date=7 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501130520/https://books.google.com/books?id=zfGlVzNltF8C&pg=PT377|archive-date=1 May 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> During this time, banditry, rape, and murder became rampant in Kandahar, creating a demand for a more moral and unified alternative. This led to the rise of the ''talibs'' (students), who eventually formed the Taliban movement. By the spring of 1994, the nucleus of the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Taliban emirate]] had begun to take shape, and that year, they launched operations to dismantle warlord militia checkpoints around the city. The talibs gained considerable popularity and legitimacy during this period by defeating these predatory warlords.<ref name=":0" />

In August 1994, the Taliban, under [[Mullah Omar]], captured Kandahar from commander [[Mullah Naqib]] almost without a fight<ref name="theguardian.com" /> and turned the city into their headquarters. The capture of Afghanistan's second-largest city marked the Taliban's transformation from a fledgling militia into an Islamic emirate, solidifying their legitimacy as a governing authority through the imposition of a strict interpretation of Islamic law.<ref name=":0" /> Formal education for girls was banned as well as the consumption of TV, films, music with instrumental [[accompaniments]], and the playing of sports. In December 1999, a hijacked [[Indian Airlines Flight 814]] plane by Pakistani militants loyal to [[Harkat-ul-Mujahideen]] landed at Kandahar International Airport and kept the passengers hostage as part of a demand to release three Pakistani militants from prison in India.

====21st century====
{{Further|International Security Assistance Force|Presidency of Hamid Karzai}}
[[File:KANDAHAR TEN-MILER.jpg|thumb|[[United States Army|U.S. Army]] troops in 2009 passing by the starting point of the [[Army Ten-Miler]] run at their base next to [[Kandahar International Airport]].]]
In October 2001, as part of [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|Operation Enduring Freedom]], the [[United States Navy]] began [[bombing of Kandahar (2001)|hitting targets]] inside the city by [[Precision-guided munition|precision-guided]] [[cruise missile]]s that were fired from the [[Persian Gulf]]. These targets were the airport and buildings that were occupied by the Taliban, including [[History of Arabs in Afghanistan|Arab]] families who had arrived several years earlier and were residing in the area.<ref>[[BBC News]], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7193579.stm Kandahar's cemetery of 'miracles'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120174340/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7193579.stm |date=20 January 2008 }}</ref> About a month later, the Taliban began surrendering in mass numbers to a private militia that had been formed by [[Gul Agha Sherzai]] and [[Hamid Karzai]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/journey/afghanistan.html|title=Home Free|quote=''[[Hamid Karzai]] dreamed for years of his eventual homecoming. But for both him and his newly reborn nation, the journey has only begun''|magazine=Time|access-date=9 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724022555/http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/journey/afghanistan.html|archive-date=24 July 2009}}</ref> Kandahar once again fell into the hands of Sherzai, who had control over the area before the rise of the Taliban. He was transferred in 2003 and replaced by [[Yousef Pashtun]] until [[Asadullah Khalid]] took the post in 2005. [[Toryalai Wesa]] was appointed [[List of governors of Kandahar|Governor of the province]] by President Hamid Karzai in December 2008 after [[Rahmatullah Raufi]]'s four-month rule.

In 2002, Kandahar International Airport started to be used by members of the United States armed forces and NATO's [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF). NATO began training the newly formed [[Afghan National Police]] and provided security responsibility of the city. The [[military of Afghanistan]], backed by [[NATO]] forces, gradually expanded its authority and presence throughout most of the country. The [[205th Corps (Afghanistan)|205th Corps]] of the [[Afghan National Army]] was based at Kandahar and provided military assistance to the south of the country. The [[Canadian Forces]] maintained their military command headquarters at Kandahar, heading the [[Train Advise Assist Command – South|Regional Command South]] of the NATO led [[International Security Assistance Force]] in [[Kandahar Province]]. The Taliban also had supporters inside the city reporting on events.<ref>BBC News, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8203830.stm Kandahar dreamers test Taliban edicts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090818081449/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8203830.stm |date=18 August 2009 }}</ref>

NATO forces expanded the Afghan police force for the prevention of a Taliban comeback in Kandahar, the militants' ''"spiritual birthplace"'' and a strategic key to ward off the [[Taliban insurgency]], as a part of a larger effort that also aimed to deliver services such as electricity and clean drinking water that the Taliban could not provide – encouraging support for the government in a city that was once the Taliban's headquarters. The most significant battle between NATO troops and the Taliban lasted throughout the summer of 2006, culminating in [[Operation Medusa]]. The Taliban failed to defeat the Western troops in open warfare, which marked a turn in their tactics towards [[Improvised explosive device|IED]] emplacement.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/8912934|title=Removed: news agency feed article|work=the Guardian|date=9 December 2015|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920044330/https://www.theguardian.com/info/2015/dec/09/removed-news-agency-feed-article|url-status=live}}</ref> In June 2008, it was reported that over 1,000 [[Sarposa prison tunneling escape of 2011|inmates had escaped]] from [[Sarposa prison]]. In Spring 2010, the province and the city of Kandahar became a target of American operations following ''[[Operation Moshtarak]]'' in the neighbouring [[Helmand Province]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/27/world/asia/27kandahar.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220103/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/27/world/asia/27kandahar.html|archive-date=3 January 2022|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|title=Kandahar, a Battlefield Even Before U.S. Offensive|date=27 March 2010|work=The New York Times|access-date=6 May 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In March 2010, U.S. and NATO commanders released details of plans for the biggest offensive of the war against the Taliban insurgency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/southAsiaNews/idINIndia-47354120100331|title=Q+A – NATO sees Kandahar battle as Afghan turning point|work=Reuters Editorial|date=31 March 2010|agency=Reuters India|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=20 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920044331/https://www.reuters.com/?edition-redirect=in|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Crocker and Wesa in 2012.jpg|left|thumb|[[United States Ambassador to Afghanistan|U.S. Ambassador]] [[Ryan Crocker]] and [[Toryalai Wesa]], the [[list of governors of Kandahar|Governor of Kandahar Province]].]]
In May 2010, Kandahar International Airport became subject of a combined rocket and ground attack by insurgents, following similar attacks on Kabul and Bagram in the preceding weeks. Although this attack did not lead to many casualties on the side of NATO forces, it did show that the militants are still capable of launching multiple, coordinated operations in Afghanistan. In June 2010, a [[shura]] was held by Afghan President Hamid Karzai with tribal and religious leaders of the Kandahar region. The meeting highlighted the need for support of NATO-led forces in order to stabilize parts of the province.

By 2011, Kandahar became known as the assassination city of Afghanistan after witnessing many targeted killings. In July [[Ahmed Wali Karzai]], brother of President Hamid Karzai, was shot by his long time head of security. Soon after the [[Quetta Shura]] of the Taliban claimed responsibility. The next day an Islamic cleric (mulla) of the famous [[Red Mosque, Kandahar|Red Mosque]] in the Shahr-e Naw area of the city and a number of other people were killed by a Taliban suicide bomber who had hidden explosives inside his [[turban]]. On 27 July 2011, the mayor of the city, [[Ghulam Haider Hamidi]], was assassinated by another Taliban militant who had hidden explosives in his turban. Two [[deputy mayor]]s had been killed in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/07/27/afghanistan.mayor.killed/index.html|title=Kandahar mayor killed in suicide attack; Taliban claim responsibility|access-date=6 May 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111007/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/07/27/afghanistan.mayor.killed/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> while many tribal elders and Islamic clerics have also been assassinated in the last several years. The overwhelming majority of the victims in the attacks are ordinary Afghan civilians.<ref name=civilians>[http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2011/10/10/challenges-remain-despite-reduced-rebel-attacks-isaf Challenges remain despite reduced rebel attacks: ISAF] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612004042/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2011/10/10/challenges-remain-despite-reduced-rebel-attacks-isaf |date=12 June 2013 }}. Pajhwok Afghan News. 10 October 2011.</ref> On 6 June 2012, at least 21 civilians were killed and 50 others injured when two Taliban suicide bombers on motorcycles blew themselves up in a market area near Kandahar International Airport.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2012/06/07/21-killed-50-injured-twin-suicide-blasts-video|title=21 killed, 50 injured in twin suicide blasts (Video)|publisher=Pajhwok Afghan News|editor=Siddiqullah|date=7 June 2012|access-date=8 June 2012|archive-date=12 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612002802/http://www.pajhwok.com/en/2012/06/07/21-killed-50-injured-twin-suicide-blasts-video|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On [[May 2020 Afghanistan attacks|4 May 2020]], a policewoman was assassinated in the centre of Kandahar, making her the fifth policewoman to be killed during the previous two months in Kandahar. No group claimed responsibility for the killing of the policewomen by the end of the day of the reported event.<ref name="vo1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/south-central-asia_taliban-claim-attack-afghan-army-base/6188667.html|title=Taliban Claim Attack on Afghan Army Base|date=4 May 2020|via=voanews.com/|access-date=28 May 2020|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816214122/https://www.voanews.com/south-central-asia/taliban-claim-attack-afghan-army-base|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 12 August 2021, the Taliban [[Battle of Kandahar (2021)|captured Kandahar]]. After days of brutal clashes with [[Afghan National Army|ANA]] soldiers retreating from the city, the Taliban were finally able to capture the city.<ref name = "talib1">{{cite web|last1=Akhgar|first1=Tameem|title=Taliban take Kandahar, Herat in major Afghanistan offensive|url=https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-afghanistan-taliban-26d485963b7a0d9f2107afcbc38f239a|website=Apnews|date=12 August 2021|access-date=12 August 2021|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812043017/https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-afghanistan-taliban-26d485963b7a0d9f2107afcbc38f239a|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name = "talib2">{{cite news|last1=Goldbaum|first1=Christina|title=Afghanistan Collapse Accelerates as 2 Vital Cities Near Fall to Taliban|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/12/world/asia/kandahar-afghanistan-taliban.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/12/world/asia/kandahar-afghanistan-taliban.html|archive-date=28 December 2021|url-access=limited|newspaper=The New York Times|date=12 August 2021|access-date=12 August 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It became the twelfth provincial capital to be seized by Taliban as part of the wider [[2021 Taliban offensive]].

On 15 October 2021, [[2021 Kandahar bombing|four suicide bombers killed dozens at a Shia mosque in the city]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Afghanistan: At least 35 killed in suicide bombing during prayers at Kandahar mosque|url=https://news.sky.com/story/afghanistan-at-least-15-killed-in-explosion-at-mosque-in-kandahar-12434327|access-date=15 October 2021|website=Sky News|language=en|archive-date=16 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016130830/https://news.sky.com/story/afghanistan-at-least-15-killed-in-explosion-at-mosque-in-kandahar-12434327|url-status=live}}</ref>