Editing Kalinago (section)

==History==
[[William Keegan|William F. Keegan]] and [[Corinne Hofman|Corinne L. Hofman]] have outlined two major models for the origin of the Kalinago.<ref name=":4">Keegan & Hofman 2017:232–233</ref> The traditional account, which is almost as old as Columbus, says that the Caribs were a warlike people who were moving up the Lesser Antilles and displacing the original inhabitants.<ref name=":4" /><ref>Rouse, Irving (1992). ''The Tainos''. Yale University Press. p. 131. {{ISBN|0300051816}}. Retrieved June 17, 2014. <q>Island Carib.</q></ref> Early missionary texts suggested the original inhabitants of the islands were the [[Igneri]], while the Kalinago were invaders originating in South America (home to the [[mainland Caribs]] or Kalina) who conquered and displaced the Igneri.<ref>Taylor, Douglas. “Kinship and Social Structure on the Island Carib”. ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' 2, no. 2 (1946): 180–212</ref> As this tradition was widespread in oral testimonies, and internally consistent, it was accepted as historical by Europeans.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rouse |first=Irving |url=https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |title=The Tainos |date=1992 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0300051816 |page=[https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/131 131] |quote=Island Carib. |access-date=June 17, 2014 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite book |last1=Figueredo |first1=D. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsNPdvRtT7oC&pg=PA9 |title=A Brief History of the Caribbean |date=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1438108315 |page=9}}</ref>

The second model proposes that the Kalinago developed out of the indigenous peoples of the Antilles.<ref name=":4" /> While the Caribs were commonly believed to have migrated from the [[Orinoco]] River area in South America to settle in the Caribbean islands about 1200 CE, an analysis of [[ancient DNA]] suggests that the Caribs had a common origin with contemporary groups in the Greater and Lesser Antilles.<ref name="philos">{{Cite journal |last1=Mendisco |first1=F. |last2=Pemonge |first2=M. H.  |last3=Leblay |first3=E. |last4=Romon |first4=T.  |last5=Richard |first5=G.  |last6=Courtaud |first6=P.  |last7=Deguilloux |first7=M. F.  |year=2015 |title=Where are the Caribs? Ancient DNA from ceramic period human remains in the Lesser Antilles |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |publisher=[[NCBI]] |volume=370 |issue=1660 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2013.0388 |pmc=4275895 |pmid=25487339}}</ref> The transition from Igneri to Island Carib culture may have occurred around 1450.<ref>Rouse, Irving (1992). ''The Tainos''. Yale University Press. pp.&nbsp;130–131. {{ISBN|0300051816}}. Retrieved June 17, 2014. <q>Island Carib.</q></ref>

Archaeological evidence in support of either model is sparse, with "no confirmed Carib sites [known] prior to the 1990s."<ref name=":4" /> However, Cayo-style pottery found in the Lesser Antilles, and dated between 1000 and 1500, is similar to the Koriabo complex from which the mainland Carib or [[Karina people|Kari'na]] pottery tradition is descended. Cayo pottery was once thought to have preceded Suazoid pottery (associated with the Igneri) in the Lesser Antilles, but more recent scholarship suggests that Cayo pottery gradually replaced Suazoid pottery in the islands.<ref name=":4" /> Cayo-style pottery has been found in the Lesser Antilles from [[Grenada]] to [[Basse-Terre]], and, possibly, [[Saint Kitts]]. Cayo pottery also shows similarities to the Meillacoid and Chicoid styles of the Greater Antilles, as well as to the South American Koriabo style.<ref>Keegan & Hofman 2017:234</ref>

===Arrival of Columbus===
{{Further |Carib Expulsion}}
Upon his arrival in the Caribbean archipelago in 1492, the [[Maipurean language|Maipurean]]-speaking [[Taínos]] reportedly told [[Christopher Columbus]] that Caribs were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing women.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{cite book |last1=Deagan |first1=Kathleen A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWGZP0V8WroC&pg=PA32 |title=Columbus's Outpost Among the Taínos: Spain and America at La Isabela, 1493-1498 |date=2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300133899 |page=32}}</ref> According to Columbus, the Taínos said the Caribs had spent the last two centuries displacing the Taínos by warfare, extermination, and assimilation.<ref name=":7">[http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0307/news0307-7.pdf Sweeney, James L. (2007). "Caribs, Maroons, Jacobins, Brigands, and Sugar Barons: The Last Stand of the Black Caribs on St. Vincent"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227183833/http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0307/news0307-7.pdf |date=2012-02-27 }}, ''African Diaspora Archaeology Network'', University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, March 2007, retrieved 26 April 2007</ref>
[[File:Tobago jade ceremonial ax.jpg|thumb|left|[[Greenstone (archaeology)|Greenstone]] ceremonial axe. From [[shell midden]], Mt Irvine Bay, [[Tobago]], 1957.]]
The French missionary [[Raymond Breton]] arrived in the Lesser Antilles in 1635, and lived in [[Guadeloupe]] and [[Dominica]] until 1653. He took ethnographic and linguistic notes on the native peoples of these islands, including [[Saint Vincent (Antilles)|St. Vincent]], which he visited briefly. Breton was responsible for many of the early stereotypes about Kalinago.<ref name="Sweeney">[http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0307/news0307-7.pdf Sweeney, James L. (2007). "Caribs, Maroons, Jacobins, Brigands, and Sugar Barons: The Last Stand of the Black Caribs on St. Vincent"], ''African Diaspora Archaeology Network'', March 2007, retrieved 26 April 2007</ref>

Later, the Kalinago occasionally allied with the Taínos to repel European invaders.  When the Spanish attempted to colonize Puerto Rico, Kalinago from St. Croix arrived to aid the local Taíno.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Beckles |first=Hilary McD. |date=1992 |title=Kalinago (carib) Resistance to European Colonisation of the Caribbean |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40654175 |journal=Caribbean Quarterly |volume=38 |issue=2/3 |pages=1–124 |doi=10.1080/00086495.1992.11671757 |jstor=40654175 |issn=0008-6495}}</ref> Daguao village, initially slated to be the Europeans' new capital, was destroyed by Taínos from the eastern area of Puerto Rico, with the support of Kalinago from neighboring [[Vieques]].<ref name="PBS">{{cite web |title=La historia de Puerto Rico a través de sus barrios: Daguao de Naguabo (The history of Puerto Rico through its barrios: Daguao in Naguabo) |url=https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/fdb5cb48-75f8-4ccf-9477-4b1553ed3bd6/barrios-de-puerto-rico-barrio-daguao-de-naguabo/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717220520/https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/fdb5cb48-75f8-4ccf-9477-4b1553ed3bd6/barrios-de-puerto-rico-barrio-daguao-de-naguabo/ |archive-date=2015-07-17 |access-date=29 August 2020 |website=PBS Learning Media |publisher=Fundación Puertorriqueña de las Humanidades |language=es |format=video}}</ref> By the middle of the 16th century, the resistance of Taínos and Kalinago alike was largely quashed across the Greater Antilles. The survivors were enslaved to work in agriculture or mining.<ref name="Kim" />

The Kalinagos were more successful in repelling the Spanish—and later the French and English—in the Lesser Antilles, retaining their independence.  The lack of gold in the area and the large numbers of casualties inflicted upon the Spanish contributed to their survival.<ref name="Kim" />

===Resistance to the English and the French===
[[File:Agostino Brunias Carib Painting.jpg|thumb|''A Family of Carib natives drawn from life'', by [[Agostino Brunias]], c. 1765 – 1770s]]
In the seventeenth century, the Kalinago regularly attacked the plantations of the English and the French in the Leeward Islands. In the 1630s, planters from the Leewards conducted campaigns against the Kalinago, but with limited success. The Kalinago took advantage of divisions between the Europeans, to provide support to the French and the Dutch during wars in the 1650s, consolidating their independence as a result.<ref name=":1">Hilary Beckles, "The 'Hub of Empire': The Caribbean and Britain in the Seventeenth Century", ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume 1 The Origins of Empire'', ed. by Nicholas Canny (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 234.</ref> Such wars led to a geopolitical boundary separating the [[Lesser Antilles]], inhabited by the Kalinago, from the [[Greater Antilles]], inhabited by the [[Taíno]]. This boundary became known as the "[[poison arrow]] curtain".<ref name="Kim" /><ref>{{cite book|page=135|title=The Columbus Dynasty in the Caribbean, 1492-1526|first=Troy S.|last=Floyd|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=1973}}</ref>

In 1660, France and England signed the ''Treaty of Saint Charles'' with Island Caribs. It stipulated that the Kalinago would [[Carib Expulsion|evacuate]] all the Lesser Antilles except for [[Dominica]] and [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent]], which were recognised as reserves. However, the English later ignored the treaty, and pursue a campaign against the Kalinago in succeeding decades.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Guadeloupe amérindienne|last=Delpuech|first=André|date=2001|publisher=Monum, éditions du patrimoine|isbn=9782858223671|location=Paris|pages=46–51|oclc=48617879}}</ref> Between the 1660s and 1700, the English waged an intermittent campaign against the Kalinago.<ref name=":0" />

By 1763, the British had annexed St Lucia, Tobago, Dominica and St Vincent.<ref name=":1" /> On Saint Vincent the Kalinago intermarried with runaway slaves, forming the ‘Black Caribs’ or Garifuna who were expelled to Honduras in 1797. The British colonial use of the term ''Black Carib'', particularly in [[Sir William Young, 2nd Baronet|William Young]]'s ''Account of the Black Charaibs'' (1795), has been described in modern historiography as framing the majority of the indigenous St. Vincent population as "mere interlopers from Africa" who lacked claims to land possession in St. Vincent.<ref name="Kim" />{{rp|121–123}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hulme |first=Peter |title=The Global Eighteenth Century |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=9780801868658 |editor-last=Nussbaum |editor-first=Felicity A. |location=Baltimore |pages=182–194 |chapter=Black, Yellow, and White on St. Vincent: Moreau de Jonnès's Carib Ethnography}}</ref>{{rp|182}} On Dominica the runaways formed distinct Maroon communities while the Caribs remained distinct. A remnant of these Caribs lives on in the Kalinago Territory.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}