Editing Julian (emperor) (section)

==Caesar in Gaul==
[[File:Visit of the Hôtel de Cluny 20150707 - 26.JPG|thumb|Statue at the [[Musée de Cluny]] formerly identified as Julian.{{efn-lr| "Two famous, almost identical marble statues of a bearded man wearing a tunic, a Greek mantle, and multi-tiered crown have long been considered to be portraits of Julian. Both of them are on display in Paris ([https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010275295 one acquired] for the [[Louvre]] in 1803, the other for the Musée de Cluny in 1859). Today, however, the statue in the Musée de Cluny is dated to the 2nd century and thought to represent a priest of [[Sarapis]] while the statue in the Louvre probably is a modern copy". {{harvnb|Wiemer|Rebenich|p=35}} }}]]
[[File:Male portrait head, Julian the Apostate (A.D. 361-363), according to one view.jpg|thumb|Male portrait head, possibly depicting Julian, exhibited at the [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]].]]
After dealing with the rebellions of Magnentius and Silvanus, Constantius felt he needed a permanent representative in [[Gaul]]. In 355, Julian was summoned to appear before the emperor in Mediolanum and on 6 November was made ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' of the West, marrying Constantius' sister, [[Helena (wife of Julian)|Helena]]. Constantius, after his experience with Gallus, intended his representative to be more a figurehead than an active participant in events, so he packed Julian off to Gaul with a small retinue, assuming his prefects in Gaul would keep Julian in check. At first reluctant to trade his scholarly life for war and politics, Julian eventually took every opportunity to involve himself in the affairs of Gaul.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=499}} In the following years he learned how to lead and then run an army, through a series of campaigns against the [[Germanic tribes]] that had settled on both sides of the [[Rhine#Antiquity|Rhine]].

===Campaigns against Germanic kingdoms===
During his first campaign in 356, Julian led an army to the Rhine, where he engaged the inhabitants and recovered several towns that had fallen into [[Franks|Frankish]] hands, including [[Colonia Agrippina]] ([[Cologne]]). With success under his belt he withdrew for the winter to Gaul, distributing his forces to protect various towns, and choosing the small town of [[Senon]] near [[Verdun#History|Verdun]] to await the spring.{{efn-lr|Most sources give the town as [[Sens]], which is well into the interior of Gaul. See John F. Drinkwater{{sfn|Drinkwater|2007|p=220}}}} This turned out to be a tactical error, for he was left with insufficient forces to defend himself when a large contingent of Franks besieged the town and Julian was virtually held captive there for several months, until his general [[Marcellus (Magister Equitum)|Marcellus]] deigned to lift the siege. Relations between Julian and Marcellus seem to have been poor. Constantius accepted Julian's report of events and Marcellus was replaced as ''[[magister equitum]]'' by Severus.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=49}}{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=501}}

The following year saw a combined operation planned by Constantius to regain control of the Rhine from the Germanic peoples who had spilt across the river onto the west bank. From the south his ''[[magister peditum]]'' [[Barbatio]] was to come from Milan and amass forces at [[Kaiseraugst|Augst]] (near the Rhine bend), then set off north with 25,000 soldiers; Julian with 13,000 troops would move east from [[Durocortorum]] ([[Rheims]]). However, while Julian was in transit, a group of [[Laeti]] attacked [[Lugdunum]] ([[Lyon]]) and Julian was delayed in order to deal with them. This left Barbatio unsupported and deep in [[Alamanni]] territory, so he felt obliged to withdraw, retracing his steps. Thus ended the coordinated operation against the Germanic peoples.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=501}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=50–51}}

With Barbatio safely out of the picture, King [[Chnodomarius]] led a confederation of Alamanni forces against Julian and Severus at the [[Battle of Argentoratum]]. The Romans were heavily outnumbered{{efn-lr|Ammianus says that there were 35,000 Alamanni, ''Res Gestae'', 16.12.26, though this figure is now thought to be an overestimate – see David S. Potter{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=501}}}} and during the heat of battle a group of 600 horsemen on the right wing deserted,<ref>D. Woods, "On the 'Standard-Bearers' at Strasbourg: Libanius, or. 18.58–66", ''Mnemosyne, Fourth Series'', Vol. 50, Fasc. 4 (August 1997), p. 479.</ref> yet, taking full advantage of the limitations of the terrain, the Romans were overwhelmingly victorious. The enemy was routed and driven into the river. King Chnodomarius was captured and later sent to Constantius in [[Mediolanum]].{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=501–502}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=51}} [[Ammianus Marcellinus|Ammianus]], who was a participant in the battle, portrays Julian in charge of events on the battlefield<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus ''Res Gestae'', 16.12.27ff, 38ff, 55</ref> and describes how the soldiers, because of this success, acclaimed Julian attempting to make him [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]], an acclamation he rejected, rebuking them. He later rewarded them for their valor.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus ''Res Gestae'', 16.12.64–65</ref>

Rather than chase the routed enemy across the Rhine, Julian now proceeded to follow the Rhine north, the route he followed the previous year on his way back to Gaul. At [[Moguntiacum]] ([[Mainz]]), however, he crossed the Rhine in an expedition that penetrated deep into what is today Germany, and forced three local kingdoms to submit. This action showed the Alamanni that Rome was once again present and active in the area. On his way back to winter quarters in Paris he dealt with a band of Franks who had taken control of some abandoned forts along the river [[Meuse]].{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=51}}{{sfn|Drinkwater|2007|p=240–241}}

In 358, Julian gained victories over the [[Salian Franks]] on the [[Lower Rhine]], settling them in [[Toxandria]] in the Roman Empire, north of today's city of [[Tongeren]], and over the Chamavi, who were expelled back to [[Hamaland]].

===Taxation and administration===
At the end of 357 Julian, with the prestige of his victory over the Alamanni to give him confidence, prevented a tax increase by the Gallic praetorian prefect [[Florentius (prefect)|Florentius]] and personally took charge of the province of ''[[Gallia Belgica|Belgica Secunda]]''. This was Julian's first experience with civil administration, where his views were influenced by his liberal education in Greece. Properly it was a role that belonged to the praetorian prefect. However, Florentius and Julian often clashed over the administration of Gaul. Julian's first priority, as ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' and nominal ranking commander in Gaul, was to drive out the barbarians who had breached the [[Rhine]] frontier. He sought to win over the support of the civil population, which was necessary for his operations in Gaul, and also to show his largely Germanic army the benefits of Imperial rule. Julian therefore felt it was necessary to rebuild stable and peaceful conditions in the devastated cities and countryside. For this reason, Julian clashed with Florentius over the latter's support of tax increases, as mentioned above, and Florentius's own corruption in the bureaucracy.

Constantius attempted to maintain some modicum of control over his ''Caesar'', which explains his removal of Julian's close adviser [[Saturninius Secundus Salutius]] from Gaul. His departure stimulated the writing of Julian's oration, "Consolation Upon the Departure of Salutius".<ref name="Athanassiadi, p.69">Athanassiadi, p. 69.</ref>

===Rebellion in Paris===
[[File:Julien crowned Emperor in Cluny in February 360.jpg|thumb|19th century depiction of Julian being proclaimed emperor in Paris (fancifully located in the [[Thermes de Cluny]], then thought to have been the Imperial Palace), standing on a shield in the [[Franks|Frankish]] manner, in February 360.]]
In the fourth year of Julian's stay in Gaul, the [[Sassanid emperor]], [[Shapur II]], invaded Mesopotamia and took the city of [[Diyarbakır|Amida]] after a 73-day siege. In February 360, Constantius II ordered more than half of Julian's Gallic troops to join his eastern army, the order by-passing Julian and going directly to the military commanders. Although Julian at first attempted to expedite the order, it provoked an insurrection by troops of the ''[[Petulantes]]'', who had no desire to leave Gaul. According to the historian [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]], the army officers were those responsible for distributing an anonymous tract<ref>''grammation'': cf. Zosimus, ''Historia Nova'', 3.9, commented by Veyne, ''L'Empire Gréco-Romain'', p. 45</ref> expressing complaints against Constantius as well as fearing for Julian's ultimate fate. Notably absent at the time was the prefect Florentius, who was seldom far from Julian's side, though now he was kept busy organizing supplies in Vienne and away from any strife that the order could cause. Julian would later blame him for the arrival of the order from Constantius.<ref>Julian, Letter to the Athenians, 282C.</ref> Ammianus Marcellinus even suggested that the fear of Julian gaining more popularity than himself caused Constantius to send the order on the urging of Florentius.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus ''Res Gestae'', 20.4.1–2</ref>

The troops proclaimed Julian ''[[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]'' in [[Paris]], and this in turn led to a very swift military effort to secure or win the allegiance of others. Although the full details are unclear, there is evidence to suggest that Julian may have at least partially stimulated the insurrection. If so, he went back to business as usual in Gaul, for, from June to August of that year, Julian led a successful campaign against the Attuarian Franks.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus. ''Res Gestae'', 20.10.1–2</ref>{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=56–57}} In November, Julian began openly using the title ''Augustus,'' even issuing coins with the title, sometimes with Constantius, sometimes without. He celebrated his fifth year in Gaul with a big show of games.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=506}}

[[File:Juliancng10700866.jpg|thumb|left|350px|[[Solidus (coin)|''Solidus'']] of Julian issued at [[Ravenna]] in 361, during his war with Constantius. The reverse reads {{sc|virtus exerc(itus) gall(icarum)}}, 'virtue of the Gallic army', celebrating Julian's legions from Gaul which acclaimed him as emperor.]]
In the spring of 361, Julian led his army into the territory of the Alamanni, where he captured their king, [[Vadomarius]]. Julian claimed that Vadomarius had been in league with Constantius, encouraging him to raid the borders of [[Raetia]].{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=58}} Julian then divided his forces, sending one column to Raetia, one to northern Italy and the third he led down the Danube on boats. His forces claimed control of Illyricum and his general, Nevitta, secured the pass of Succi into Thrace. He was now well out of his comfort zone and on the road to civil war.{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=59}} (Julian would state in late November that he set off down this road "because, having been declared a public enemy, I meant to frighten him [Constantius] merely, and that our quarrel should result in intercourse on more friendly terms..."<ref>In a private letter to his Uncle Julian, in W.C. Wright, v. 3, p. 27.</ref>)

However, in June, forces loyal to Constantius captured the city of [[Aquileia]] on the north Adriatic coast, an event that threatened to cut Julian off from the rest of his forces, while Constantius's troops marched towards him from the east. Aquileia was subsequently besieged by 23,000 men loyal to Julian.<ref name="Nor2">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 89</ref> All Julian could do was sit it out in Naissus, the city of Constantine's birth, waiting for news and writing letters to various cities in Greece justifying his actions (of which only the letter to the Athenians has survived in its entirety).{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=60}} Civil war was avoided only by the death on 3 November of Constantius, who, in his last will, is alleged by some sources to have recognized Julian as his rightful successor.