Editing Johann Heinrich Zedler (section)

==Independent bookseller and publisher in Leipzig==

===First major publishing project===
[[File:Zedler - Luthers sämtliche Schriften.jpg|thumb|left|Zedler's first major publishing project: ''The dear man of God, Martin Luther''. Title page of the first volume, Leipzig 1729.]]

In 1727, Zedler and his wife moved to the university and trade fair city of Leipzig. That year his name appeared in a list of sixteen publishing booksellers in Leipzig.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=31}}
In September, Zedler announced his first published works after moving to Leipzig.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=36}}
The ad appeared just before the Leipzig Michaelmas Fair in October and was aimed at the many visitors to the city for this event.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=37}}

Early in 1728 Zedler published a notice of "''A new enlarged and revised edition of all the German journals and Works of the Blessed Luther''".<ref name="NeueZeitungengelehrtenSachen.60/63">''Neue Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen'', Januar 1728, S. 60 und 63.</ref>
Unlike the previous work by theologian [[Johann Gottlieb Pfeiffer]], Zedler's book did not follow a chronological sequence, but organized the material around themes.
This was the first of seven volumes of work designed for high school use.
The work was financed through [[Praenumeration]], a common practice at the time.
Interested parties would pay for two sections in advance at the Easter Fair in 1728, with a discount, and then receive delivery at the following Michaelmas Fair in early October. Zedler offered a particularly attractive price, making reprint by other booksellers unprofitable.<ref name="NeueZeitungengelehrtenSachen.60/63"/>

Since Zedler could not expect to raise enough funds for publication in this way, he also took a loan of 2,665 thalers from his brother-in-law David Richter.
It is clear that this was a time of considerable uncertainty. Although Zedler had committed to publication on October 1728, as a precaution the year 1729 was printed on the title page.
However, he met the deadline and fourteen days before the fair announced that the book was ready and no new subscribers to the Praenumeration plan would be accepted.<ref>''Neue Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen'', September 1728, S. 744.</ref>
Within a year Zedler had built a viable publishing business based on the success of the Luther series.

Each volume in this series, as well as those of later published works, was dedicated by Zedler to high notables according to the practice of the time. The person named in the dedicatory preface and depicted with an engraved portrait often responded with a financial gift or an honorary title. The first such title was given to Zedler by [[Christian, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels]], to whom he dedicated the first and third volumes of Luther's writings. The Duke was an important supporter of the Protestant church and also a great hunting enthusiast.
Zedler presented the first book to the Duke in person on his birthday.{{sfn|Gross Lexicon - Zedler|1749|pp=309-311}}

===Announcement of the Universal Lexicon===
[[File:Neue Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen - 1730-03-26 - 208.jpg|thumb|Zedler announced on 26 March 1730 his plan to print a large universal lexicon of all the sciences, seeking Praenumeration subscriptions.]]
On 26 March 1730 Zedler announced the seventh and eighth volumes of Luther's works in the journal ''New Learned Works'', and also announced his next project: the ''Great Complete Universal Lexicon of Science and Art'', with the first volume to be available through Praenumeration subscriptions.<ref>''Neue Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen'', 26. März 1730, page 208.</ref>

Zedler intended to summarize many previously available reference works on various fields of knowledge into a single large work of reference. The plan was a challenge to the established publishers of Leipzig.
For example, [[Johann Friedrich Gleditsch]] had published a household lexicon in 1704, and with its third edition of 1708 this had become a form of encyclopedia.
Thomas Fritsch had published the ''General Historical Lexicon'' in 1709, the German-language equivalent of ''[[Le Grand Dictionnaire historique]]'' of [[Louis Moréri]], a multi-volume project with contributions from specialist writers and scientists.
In 1721, Johann Theodor Jablonski published a ''General Lexicon of Arts and Science''.
A series of small reference books and dictionaries  for the public completed the range.{{sfn|Kossmann|1969|pp=1553–1590}}
All these works were now threatened by Zedler's project.

The first public reaction from an established Leipzig publisher came five weeks after Zedler's notice. Caspar Fritsch, son of Thomas Fritsch (who had died in 1726), was concerned about the effect on sales of the ''General Historical Lexicon'', whose third edition was being prepared. He announced special pricing, and stressed the security of subscriptions to his established work.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=64}}

===Bid for copyright protection===
[[File:Zedler - Protokoll Verfügung gegen Zedler (letzte Seite).jpg|thumb|left|Last log page of the order against Zedler, rejecting his request for privilege, Leipzig, 12 October 1730.]]

On 13 September 1730 Zedler requested a Saxon printing privilege to protect the lexicon, which was advertised for the 1731 Easter Fair.
These national privileges typically covered a period of five to ten years, and gave the original printer protection against foreign reprints during this time.
The Leipzig Book Commission, which was responsible for granting such privileges, followed the normal process of posting an explanation of the print project and the privilege request for a week in all the bookstores of the city, during which period objections could be filed with the courts.

Both Caspar Fritsch and Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch, son of Johann Friedrich Gleditsch, raised objections.
Fritsch argued that in 1724 his father had gained the Saxon privilege for the ''General Historical Lexicon'' with a ten-year term, and said that the Universal Lexicon would not differ in content from this and other existing lexicons apart from [[Paraphrasing of copyrighted material|paraphrasing]].{{sfn|Kirchhoff|1891|p=198}}
On 16 October 1730, the Upper [[Consistory (Protestantism)|Consistory]] in [[Dresden]] agreed with the arguments of Fritsch and Gleditsch, rejected Zedler's request, and warned that he would be subject to confiscation and a fine of 300 thalers if he reproduced any material from the ''General Historical Lexicon'' in his Universal Lexicon.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zedler_-_Protokoll_Verf%C3%BCgung_gegen_Zedler_(letzte_Seite).jpg?uselang=de
 |title=Order against Zedler, rejecting his request for privilege, Leipzig
 |date=12 October 1730}}</ref>
With this ruling, Zedler lost the first round in his dispute with the competing Leipzig publishers.

===Continuation of the Leipzig "Publishers war"===
Despite the decision of the Dresden court, Zedler continued with his project.
On 19 October 1730 he informed the Leipzig journal ''New Learned Works'' that he was still accepting further Praenumeration subscriptions, and rejected all accusations of plagiarism.
He said that the Universal-Lexicon was being written by learned and distinguished men who had no need to plagiarize, but could write the material from their own knowledge.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=72}}

Zedler went on to say that he would not be deterred by envious enemies, but would bring out further important works.{{sfn|Juntke|1956|p=23}}
This referred to his latest publishing project, a ''General Chronicle of States, Wars, Religion and Scholarship''.
Zedler could rely on the support of [[Jacob August Franckenstein]], a professor of natural and international law at the [[University of Leipzig]], and was a friend of the publisher of ''New Learned Works'', Johann Burckhardt Mencke. On 24 October 1730, Zedler sent the  Council of the City of Leipzig a preprint of the proposed title page, but this time without the privilege claim.

[[File:Franckesche Stiftungen 1749.jpg|thumb|360px|In response to the Leipzig order, Zedler moved production of the Universal Lexicon to the press of August Hermann Francke, who founded the orphanage in [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]]]]
Again, the local publishers protested, and the Leipzig Book Commission finally ordered Zedler to halt printing of the ''Universal Lexicon'' and the ''Chronicle'' and to stop advertising these works. In addition, the court ordered Zedler to print and distribute its verdict or pay a penalty of 100 thalars.
With the ''Universal Lexicon'' in jeopardy, Zedler shifted production to neighboring [[Prussia]].
In [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]] he was in contact with Johann Peter von Ludewig, a lawyer and the local University Chancellor.
Ludewig was also senior staff member of the Council for the orphanage in Halle.
Apparently he caused the orphanage to be assigned to Zedler for printing the Universal-Lexicon.
Before this started, Zedler requested a royal Prussian printing privilege, and at the same time an Imperial privilege.
He received the imperial privilege on 6 April 1731 from [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], and the Prussian royal privilege only four days later.

===Completion and seizure of the first volume of the encyclopedia===
Zedler could not meet the planned Easter 1731 delivery date for the first volume of the Lexicon.
He therefore announced in an advertisement in ''New Learned Works'' on 15 April 1731 that the work would be ready for the Michaelmas Fair in October. He also announced that he was appointed and protected by the [[King in Prussia|Prussian King]] and Elector of Brandenburg, [[Frederick William I of Prussia|Frederick William I]].{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=85}}

Jacob August Franckenstein was editor of the first volume, and Johann Peter von Ludewig wrote the preface.
It is only possible to guess at other authors who contributed to this and all subsequent volumes.
Ulrich Johannes Schneider, an expert on Zedler and director of the [[Leipzig University Library]], says that anonymity – at least at this early stage of the enterprise – was a deliberate strategy. Zedler kept the names of his employees secret to protect against lawsuits on theft of intellectual property.{{sfn|Schneider|2004|p=198}}
In his preface to the first volume of the lexicon, von Ludewig said that the Lexicon was entirely the work of Zedler's "nine muses", and that their names would be disclosed when the work was complete.{{sfn|Gross Lexicon - Preface|p=15}}
This promise was not subsequently observed, and Schneider considers it highly questionable that there were nine authors.{{sfn|Schneider|2004|p=199}}
In any case, Schneider says that the appearance of the first volume was the start of "Europe's largest Encyclopedia project of the 18th Century".{{sfn|Schneider|2004|p=196}}

===Compromise, libel, renewed printing ban and exit of Franckenstein===
[[File:Charlatanerie der Buchhandlung (Titel).jpg|thumb|left|Cover of 1732 pamphlet on charlatanism of the bookstore.]]

The local Leipzig publishers were quick to react. During the Michaelmas Fair 1731 the Leipzig Book Commission ordered the seizure of all previously printed and undelivered copies.
Zedler protested against the seizure, but the Commission maintained its verdict.
The publisher turned to the Dresden Upper Consistory and achieved a partial success.
In its decision of 14 December 1731 the court gave him permission to supply his Praenumeration subscribers with books that had been printed outside the [[Electorate of Saxony]]. This compromise allowed Zedler to continue book production, although transport added costs.

A pamphlet lampooning the "charlatanism" of the bookstore appeared at this time.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=102}}
Almost ninety pages long, it takes the form of a dialog between two merchants at the 1731 Leipzig Michaelmas Fair.
The two men talk of the injustices of the book trade, allege that Zedler engaged in sharp practices and fraud, say that he lacks finance and accuse his authors of stupidity.
They say of Johann Peter von Ludewig that nobody knew where he obtained his title and his fortune.
Zedler's response to this libel is not known, but on 11 February 1732 Ludewig offered a reward for discovery of the author.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=105}}

Zedler's opponents did not give up. They went back to the Upper Consistory in Dresden, and demanded payment of the penalty of 300 thalers imposed in October 1730.
On 10 March 1732 the court asked for a new report from the Leipzig Book Commission, which responded with an 87-page list of allegations of plagiarism from Zedler's opponents. On 24 April the court ruled that Zedler must pay the fine of 300 thalers and banned him from further printing within Saxony.
On 26 October 1732 Zedler suffered another blow. Jacob August Franckenstein publicly announced that he would have no more to do with Zedler's publications.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=131}}
Two months later, on 10 May 1733, Franckenstein died.
After his death, [[Paul Daniel Longolius]] assumed the editorship of the ''Universal Lexicon''.

===The company falters===
[[File:Zedler - Reyher und Juncker Latinitatis Theatrum.jpg|thumb|The cover of Zedler's new edition of the dictionary ''Theatrum Latinitatis'' edited by Johann Matthias Gesner.]]

The spring of 1733 was marked by three events that had considerable influence on Zedler's fate as an entrepreneur.
In February Zedler launched a monthly paperback magazine called ''Open Cabinet of Great Men, or the current status of all kingdoms and countries of the world''.
The new journal was aimed at awakening public interest in news from the political, military and court areas.
It was a success, publishing 25 editions up to 1735, but, according to  Zedler's biographer Gerd Quedenbaum, in the long run it was not a remarkable source of revenue.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=132}}
In March 1733, Zedler bought the publishing house of Johann Herbord Kloss, who had died in 1730.
Kloss had a total of 1,014 titles on offer, and in terms of volume was in the first third of the Leipzig booksellers.
However, many of these titles were scarcely marketable.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=132}}
In mid-April, Zedler announced a new publication in a newspaper advertisement, a Latin-Greek-German lexicon by [[Andreas Reyher]] and Christian Juncker, edited by [[Johann Matthias Gesner]].

In March, Zedler had optimistically advertised books from the Johann Herbord Kloss printing house.
By June, he was already preparing a sale of 10,000 bound and unbound books of the acquired inventory, with a high proportion of "junk product".{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=142}}
The sale was arranged as an auction, held on 27 July.
There were growing indications that Zedler was in financial difficulties and had to rely on short-term gains.
On 5 October the Halle bookseller Johann Gottfried Oertel offered a catalog of books from Zedler for the upcoming Leipzig Michaelmas fair at discounts of up to 50%.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=152}}

Zedler used these low prices during the first week of the fair to try to obtain cash.
The main problem was the completion of the eleventh and last volume of the Lutheran writings, whose appearance was announced at the same Michaelmas Fair of 1733. This was the end of a solid source of income. Moreover, until now the costs of the last volume had been met by Praenumeration advances on the next volume. Now the bills had to be settled.

In December 1733, Zedler introduced news on the ''Current State of War'' in his ''Cabinet'' magazine, increasing sales. But a few months later he faced competition from the Leipzig publisher [[Moritz Georg Weidmann]] with a competing magazine on news of the European states.
Just before the start of the Easter Fair of 1734, Zedler again tried to run down his inventory by low offers. At the end of 1734 he ran ads for a magazine project called ''News worth reading for the city and the new University of Göttingen'', but it probably was never published.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=168}}

===Recovery attempt: the book lottery===
In the spring of 1735 Zedler resorted to a new means to convert inventory into cash. In a specially printed brochure, he announced a book lottery. All participants would receive books, with a value equivalent to the amount they had paid, so there would be no losers. They would also get a ticket to a draw of valuable books.
The draw was to be on 18 April 1735 during the Easter fair, and would have brought new publicity to Zedler.
Zedler pledged to donate a portion of the earnings to the Leipzig orphanage.

Zedler's opponents, led by Weidmann, opposed the scheme.
They appealed to the Leipzig town council and the Supreme Consistory in Dresden to ban the lottery.
They pointed out that Zedler's Universal Lexicon was among the prizes, and reiterated that the ban on sales of works produced in  Saxony still applied.
As Zedler received no immediate response from Dresden, he had to let the date for the draw pass.
On 28 May, he was finally told that the lottery was approved, but only on condition that the Universal-Lexicon was removed from the offer. This was probably the most attractive prize.
Added to this, one of Zedler's competitors, Johann Christian Martini, failed and flooded the market with its stock of books.
On 3 October 1735, before the Michaelmas Fair Zedler advertised that lots were still available.
Soon after he announced a new auction of 6,521 books and 1121 engravings.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=192}}

On 8 April 1736, Zedler again advertised his lottery plan through a newspaper ad. This time, however, the lots were offered at a greatly reduced price. Quedenbaum concludes that at this time Zedler was in such great financial distress was that he wanted to sell his stock of book at any price.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=198}}

===Financial collapse===
The circumstances of Zedler's financial collapse are obscure.
It is clear that after a certain point Zedler could no longer meet his payment obligations to creditors.
Albrecht Kirchhoff in his 1892 book reproduced a report dated 10 October 1738 from the Council of the City of Leipzig to the government in Dresden on the subject.{{sfn|Kirchhoff|1892|p=97}}
It is not known when exactly Zedler's insolvency occurred.
Juntke writes in a paper published in 1956 that the privilege dispute had bankrupted Zedler in the spring of 1735.{{sfn|Juntke|1956|p=28}}
Writing in 1962, Blühm agrees, saying formal bankruptcy occurred in spring of 1735.{{sfn|Blühm|1962|p=194}}
Quedenbaum considers that the collapse probably did not occur before 1736.{{sfn|Quedenbaum|1977|p=193}}
Modern biographical works such as the 2003 article by Winfried Müller in ''Saxon biography'' avoid the problem by not discussing the exact date and circumstances of Zedler's financial collapse in detail.{{sfn|Müller|2003}}