Editing Jehovah's Witnesses (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Jehovah's Witnesses}}
Scholarly analysis of Jehovah's Witnesses is limited in Western academia,{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=1}} with most works focusing on legal challenges faced by the group.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knox |first1=Zoe |title=The History of the Jehovah's Witnesses: An Appraisal of Recent Scholarship |journal=Journal of Religious History |date=2017 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=258–259|doi=10.1111/1467-9809.12425 }}</ref> The denomination does not cooperate with scholars beyond limited communication from anonymous individuals. Consequently, academics often rely on literature written by former members such as [[James Penton]] and [[Raymond Franz]] to understand its inner workings.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=3}} The denomination has been variously described as a ''church'', ''[[sect]]'', ''[[new religious movement]]'', or ''[[cult]]''. Usage of the various terms has been debated among sociologists.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=19}} When the term ''sect'' is used by sociologists, it is within the framework of [[church-sect typology]] for their activities within a specific country.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=19}} Sociologists from the 1940s to the 1960s frequently compared the group's structure with [[totalitarianism]].{{sfn|Chu|Peltonen|2025}} Throughout the 1970s and 80s, sociologists determined that ''cult'' was a reductionist label when applied to Jehovah's Witnesses, noting that new members did not undergo "sudden transformations" and made a rational choice to join the group.{{sfn|Chu|Peltonen|2025}} Academics generally stopped using the term ''cult'' in the 1980s due to its [[pejorative]] association and its usage by the [[Christian countercult movement]], with ''new religious movement'' largely replacing it.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=20}} [[George Chryssides]] and [[Zoe Knox]] avoid using the term ''new religious movement'' because it also has negative connotations.{{sfn|Knox|2018|page=20}} Chryssides refers to the denomination as an "old new religion".{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=2}} 

===Background===
{{Main|Bible Student movement}}
[[File:C.T. Russell.gif|upright|thumb|Charles Taze Russell, founder of the Watch Tower Society]]
In 1870, [[Charles Taze Russell]] and others formed a group in [[Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], to study the Bible.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=6}} During his ministry, Russell disputed many of mainstream Christianity's tenets, including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, Christ's return, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world.{{sfn|Beckford|1975|page=2}} In 1876, he met [[Nelson H. Barbour]]. Later that year they jointly produced the book ''[[Three Worlds (book)|Three Worlds]],'' which combined [[restitution (theology)|restitutionist]] views with [[Eschatology|end time]] prophecy.{{sfn|Beckford|1975|page=2}}

The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided [[Dispensationalism|dispensationally]], with each period ending with a "harvest", and that Jesus inaugurated the "harvest of the Gospel age" by means of his invisible return in 1874.{{sfn|Beckford|1975|page=2}} The book asserted that 1914 would mark the end of a 2,520-year period called "the Gentile Times",{{sfn|Crompton|1996|pages=37–39}} at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chryssides |first=George |date=2010-07-29 |title=How Prophecy Succeeds: Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations |url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/IJSNR/article/view/12210 |journal=International Journal for the Study of New Religions |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=33–48 |doi=10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.27 |issn=2041-952X}}</ref> Beginning in 1878, Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious magazine, ''Herald of the Morning''.{{sfn|Botting|Botting|1984|page=36}} In June 1879, the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July, Russell began publishing the magazine ''[[The Watchtower|Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence]]'',{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=18}} saying its purpose was to demonstrate that the world was in "the last days" and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under Jesus' reign was imminent.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Abrahams |first=Edward H. |date=1977 |title=The Pain of the Millennium: Charles Taze Russell and the Jehovah's Witnesses 1879–1916 |journal=American Studies |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=57–70 |jstor=40641257 |issn=0026-3079}}</ref>

From 1879, ''Watch Tower'' supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880, Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings.<ref name=":0" /> In 1881, ''Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society'' was presided over by [[William Henry Conley]], and in 1884, Russell incorporated the society as a nonprofit business to distribute tracts and Bibles.<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|page=xxxiv}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vergilius Ture Anselm Ferm |title=Religion in the Twentieth Century|page=383|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1948}}</ref> He also published a six book series entitled ''[[Studies in the Scriptures]]''.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=18}} By about 1900, Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time [[Colportage|colporteur]]s,{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=18}} and was appointing foreign [[missionaries]] and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred "pilgrims", or traveling preachers.{{sfn|Holden|2002|page=19}} Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry,<ref>{{cite book|page=35 |publisher=Greenwood Press|title=A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States|year=1996}}</ref>{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=26–29}} and by 1912, he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=W.T. Ellis|date=October 3, 1912|issue=40|magazine=The Continent|page=1354 |publisher=McCormick Publishing Company|volume=43|title=(Title unknown)}}</ref> He also directed ''[[The Photo-Drama of Creation]]''.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=19}}

Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to [[Brooklyn]], New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named ''Bethel''. He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students", and more formally as the [[Bible Student movement#International Bible Students Association|International Bible Students Association]].<ref>{{cite book|author2=Sumner B. Twiss|author=by Walter H. Conser|page=136|publisher=University of Georgia Press|title=Religious Diversity and American Religious History|year=1997}}</ref> By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |page=374|title=The New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge|volume=7|year=1910}}</ref> and congregations reelected him annually as their pastor.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=26}} Russell died on October 31, 1916, at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=31}}

===Joseph Rutherford===
[[File:J.F. Rutherford.gif|thumb|right|upright|Joseph Rutherford in 1910]]
In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, [[Joseph Franklin Rutherford]], was elected as its next president. His [[Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)|election was disputed]], and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner.{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=53}} The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade.{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=58, 61–62}}{{sfn|Crompton|1996|page=101}} Because of disappointment over the changes and [[Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions#1925: Resurrection of the patriarchs|unfulfilled predictions]], tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society,{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|pages=39, 52}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Herbert H. Stroup |location=New York|pages=14, 15|publisher=Columbia University Press|title=The Jehovah's Witnesses|year=1945}}</ref><ref name="Penton, 1997, 58">{{harvnb|Penton|1997|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA58 58], [https://books.google.com/books?id=38SYXalMLeQC&pg=PA61 61]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gruss|first=Edmond C.|title=Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSZL8BWc9KcC&pg=PA218 |year=2001|publisher=Xulon Press|isbn=978-1-931232-30-2|page=218}}</ref> the largest of which was the [[Dawn Bible Students Association]].{{sfn|Crompton|1996|page=150}} There are varying estimates of how many Bible Students left during Rutherford's tenure, with Alan Rogerson believing the total number to be unclear.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=52}} By mid-1919, an estimated one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society. By the 1920s, three-quarters were estimated to have left.<ref name="Penton, 1997, 58"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Gruss |first=Edmond C.|year=1970|isbn=978-0-87552-305-7|page=265|publisher=Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co.|title=Apostles of Denial: An Examination and Exposé of the History, Doctrines and Claims of the Jehovah's Witnesses |url=https://archive.org/stream/ApostlesOfDenial/1970_Apostles_Of_Denial#page/n275/mode/1up}}</ref>

Rutherford enacted several changes under his leadership, many of which are considered "distinctive" to modern Jehovah's Witness beliefs and practices. Some of these changes include advocating for door-to-door preaching, prohibiting celebrations believed to be pagan such as Christmas, the belief that Jesus died on a stake instead of a cross, and a more uniform [[#Organization|organization]]al hierarchy.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=21}} In 1919, Rutherford instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters.{{sfn|Franz|2007|loc="Chapter 4"}} In 1920, he announced that the Hebrew patriarchs (such as [[Abraham]] and [[Isaac]]) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of [[Christ]]'s [[Millennialism|thousand-year earthly kingdom]].{{sfn|Franz|2007|page=144}}<ref>{{cite journal|first=George D.|last=Chryssides|author-link=George Chryssides|doi=10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.27 |issn=2041-952X |issue=1|journal=International Journal for the Study of New Religions|pages=27–48|title=How Prophecy Succeeds: The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations |volume=1|year=2010}}</ref> In July 1917, he released ''The Finished Mystery'' as a seventh volume to the ''Studies in the Scriptures'' series. Rutherford claimed it to be Russell's posthumous work, but it was actually written by Clayton Woodworth, George Fisher, and Gertrude Seibert.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=20}} It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the [[World War I|Great War]].{{sfn|Penton|1997|page=55}} As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for [[sedition]] under the ''[[Espionage Act of 1917|Espionage Act]]'' in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; the directors were released in March 1919 and charges against them were dropped in 1920.{{sfn|Rogerson|1969|page=44}} 

On July 26, 1931, at a convention in [[Columbus, Ohio]], Rutherford introduced the new name ''Jehovah's witnesses'', based on [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith the Lord, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me" (King James Version). It was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as to symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods.<ref name="Rogerson 1969 55">{{harvnb|Rogerson|1969|page=55}}.</ref><ref name="Beckford 1975 30">{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=30}}.</ref> 

In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders.{{sfn|Franz|2007|loc="Chapter 4"}} In 1938, he introduced what he called a [[theocratic]] organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.{{sfn|Franz|2007|loc="Chapter 4"}} Doctrine regarding [[#Life after death|life after death]] also evolved under his tenure. In addition to the preexisting belief that there would be 144,000 people to survive Armageddon and live in heaven to rule over earth with Jesus, a separate class of members, the "great multitude", was introduced. This group would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=31}}</ref>{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=71–72}} By the mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Jesus' presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the last days were each moved to 1914.{{sfn|Crompton|1996|pages=109–110}} As their interpretations of the Bible evolved, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and [[#Government interactions|government opposition]] in various countries.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|page=35}}</ref>{{sfn|Garbe|2008|pp=145}}

===Nathan Knorr===
[[File:NathanHomerKnorr-WTPres.png|thumb|right|upright|Nathan Knorr, the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society]]
{{See also|Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine}}
[[Nathan H. Knorr|Nathan Knorr]] was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices worldwide.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=47–52}}</ref> He also increased the use of explicit instructions guiding Jehovah's Witnesses' lifestyle and conduct as well as a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=52–55}}</ref>{{sfn|Penton|1997|pages=89–90}} Watch Tower Society literature stopped crediting individual contributors during his tenure, as he believed that recognition should only be given to God.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=23}}  

Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]]'', the full version of which was released in 1961.<ref>{{harvnb|Beckford|1975|pages=47–52}}</ref> Various Bible scholars, including [[Bruce M. Metzger]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Metzger|first1=Bruce|date=July 1, 1964|doi=10.1177/000608446401500311|journal=The Bible Translator|volume=15|issue=3|page=151|s2cid=220318160|title=Book Review: New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures|url=http://www.ubs-translations.org/tbt/1964/03/TBT196403.html?seq=49|access-date=October 30, 2018|archive-date=August 2, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802013602/http://www.ubs-translations.org/tbt/1964/03/TBT196403.html?seq=49|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[MacLean Gilmour]],<ref>{{cite journal|first=MacLean |last=Gilmour |date=September 1, 1966|issue=1|journal=Andover Newton Quarterly|pages=25–26|title=The Use and Abuse of the Book of Revelation|volume=7}}</ref> have said that while scholarship is evident in ''New World Translation'', its rendering of certain texts is inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.<ref name="pentongov"/><ref>{{cite book |author1=John Ankerberg|author2=John Weldon|author3=Dillon Burroughs|title=The Facts on Jehovah's Witnesses |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rLHuulPCiTgC&pg=PA43|year=2008|publisher=Harvest House Publishers |location=Eugene, OR|isbn=978-0-7369-3907-2|pages=43–45}} See also John Ankerberg and John Weldon, 2003, ''The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses'', accessible [https://web.archive.org/web/20121029043702/http://www.johnankerberg.org/Articles/ATRI-Bible-School/Fall-Bible-School/fall-bible-school-jw-new-world-translation.htm online]</ref> Critics of the group such as Edmund C. Gruss<ref>{{cite book |author=Edmond C. Gruss |page=211|title=Apostles of Denial}}</ref> and Christian writers such as [[Ray Stedman|Ray C. Stedman]],<ref>Stedman, R.C., "The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures", ''Our Hope'' 50; 34, July 1953. 30 as quoted in Edmond C. Gruss, ''Apostles of Denial'', p. 209.</ref> [[Walter Ralston Martin|Walter Martin]], Norman Klann,<ref>{{cite book|first1=W.|last1=Martin|first2=N.|last2=Klann |location=Minneapolis |page=161|publisher=Bethany|title=Jehovah of the Watchtower|year=1974}}</ref> and [[Anthony A. Hoekema|Anthony Hoekema]]{{sfn|Hoekema|1963|page=208–209}} say the ''New World Translation'' is scholastically dishonest. Most criticism of the ''New World Translation'' relates to its rendering of the New Testament, particularly regarding the introduction of the name ''Jehovah'' and in passages related to the Trinity doctrine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor=G. Hébert |chapter=Jehovah's Witnesses |page=751|publisher=Gale|title=The New Catholic Encyclopedia|volume=7|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Anthony A. Hoekema|isbn=0802831176|pages=208–209|publisher=William B. Eerdmans|title=The Four Major Cults: Christian Science, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism, Seventh-day Adventism|year=1963}}</ref>

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972.<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|pages=32,112}}</ref> In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions being passed to the [[Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses|Governing Body]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|page=64}}</ref> Knorr introduced these changes as he believed that people making spiritual decisions should be "called by Christ" rather than elected.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=24}} The presidency's role transitioned into heading the denomination's [[legal entity]].{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=24}} The distinction between these roles grew further when all Governing Body members resigned as directors and the [[Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc.]] was formed in 2000.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|page=26}} Since Knorr's death in 1977, the presidency has been held by [[Frederick Franz]],<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Ostling |first1=Richard |title=Witness Under Prosecution |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922767,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930061930/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922767,00.html |access-date=13 November 2023|archive-date=September 30, 2007 }}</ref> [[Milton George Henschel|Milton Henschel]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Milton Henschel, 72; Executive Who Led Jehovah's Witnesse |work=The New York Times |date=March 30, 2003 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/30/nyregion/milton-henschel-72-executive-who-led-jehovah-s-witnesses.html |access-date=13 November 2023}}</ref> [[Don Alden Adams]]<ref>''Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches 2009, Volume 2009'' by Eileen W. Lindner, Abingdon Press, p. 131</ref> and [[Robert Ciranko]].<ref name=McCoy>{{cite book|author-last=McCoy|author-first=Daniel J.|title=The Popular Handbook of World Religions|publisher=Harvest House Publishers|year=2021|page=287}}</ref>

===Further development===
From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Jesus' thousand-year reign might begin in 1975<ref>{{harvnb|Chryssides|2008|page=19}}</ref> or shortly thereafter.<ref name="Penton, 1997, 95" >{{harvnb|Penton|1997|page=95}}</ref>{{sfn|Botting|Botting|1984|page=46}} The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975, the number of active members exceeded two million. From 1971 to 1981, there was a net increase of 737,241 publishers worldwide, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.<ref name="Stark">{{cite journal|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary Religion]]|title=Why the Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application |url=http://www.kotiposti.net/raamattu/jt/doc/study-why-jw-grow-so-rapidly.pdf |year=1997|pages=142–143|access-date=July 16, 2013|author=Stark and Iannoccone|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412073649/http://www.kotiposti.net/raamattu/jt/doc/study-why-jw-grow-so-rapidly.pdf}}</ref> Watch Tower Society literature did not say that 1975 would definitely mark the end,<ref name="Penton, 1997, 95" /> though it was strongly implied. Frederick Franz, then–president of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, stated at a 1975 convention that the [[great tribulation]] could be expected to start by the end of that year. Many Jehovah's Witnesses acted upon this information by quitting their jobs and preaching more fervently. After that prediction failed, ordinary Jehovah's Witness members were blamed for believing in the date rather than the Governing Body acknowledging responsibility. Membership declined significantly for a few years after the failed prediction.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=120-122}} 

Jehovah's Witnesses have not set any specific dates for the end since 1975. Their publications emphasize that "one cannot know the day or the hour", but they still believe Armageddon to be imminent. Verse 34 of [[Matthew 24]], where Jesus tells his disciples that "this generation will by no means pass away until all these things happen", was interpreted to refer to the generation of people alive in 1914. The initial teaching was that Armageddon would begin before the last person alive during that timeframe had died. The time limit was removed in 1995. This doctrine changed further in 2008, where ''generation'' was interpreted to refer to both the original anointed class and their remnant, the latter of which would be alive when Armageddon began. In 2010, the meaning of ''generation'' was re-interpreted to include individuals whose lives overlapped with anointed individuals alive during 1914.{{sfn|Chryssides|2022|pages=123-125}}