Editing Jamaica (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Jamaica}}

===Prehistory===
{{Main|Pre-Columbian Jamaica}}
There is no archaeological evidence of any human presence on Jamaica until about 500.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keegan |first1=William F. |title=The Caribbean before Columbus |last2=Hofman |first2=Corinne L. |author-link2=Corinne Hofman |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780190647353 |edition=ebook |location=New York. New York |pages=10}}</ref> A group known as the "Redware people" after their pottery arrived circa 600,<ref name="EBJH">[https://www.britannica.com/place/Jamaica/History "Jamaica"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420082314/https://www.britannica.com/place/Jamaica/History |date=20 April 2019 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> followed by the Taíno circa 800, who most likely came from [[South America]].<ref name="EBJH"/><ref>Atkinson, Lesley-Gail. "The Earliest Inhabitants: The Dynamics of the Jamaican Taíno."</ref> They practised an agrarian and fishing economy, and at their height are thought to have numbered some 60,000 people, grouped into around 200 villages headed by ''[[cacique]]s'' (chiefs).<ref name="EBJH"/> The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.<ref name="primearticles1">{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/taino.shtml |title=The Taino of Jamaica (Jamaica) |publisher=Jamaicans.com |date=1 April 2001 |access-date=4 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416013904/http://www.jamaicans.com/articles/primearticles/taino.shtml |archive-date=16 April 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Though often thought to have become extinct following contact with Europeans, the Taíno in fact still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655.<ref name="primearticles1"/> Some fled into interior regions, merging with African [[Jamaican Maroons|Maroon]] communities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Harcourt |last2=Torres |first2=Jada Benn |date=2018-01-02 |title=Investigating the "Taíno" ancestry of the Jamaican Maroons: a new genetic (DNA), historical, and multidisciplinary analysis and case study of the Accompong Town Maroons |journal=Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=47–78 |doi=10.1080/08263663.2018.1426227 |s2cid=166204004 |issn=0826-3663}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Madrilejo |first1=Nicole |last2=Lombard |first2=Holden |last3=Torres |first3=Jada Benn |date=2014-11-13 |title=Origins of marronage: Mitochondrial lineages of Jamaica's Accompong Town Maroons |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=432–437 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.22656 |pmid=25392952 |s2cid=30255510 |issn=1042-0533}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140705/lead/lead5.html |title='I am not extinct'—Jamaican Taino proudly declares ancestry |date=2014-07-05 |website=jamaica-gleaner.com |access-date=2019-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190206044422/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140705/lead/lead5.html |archive-date=6 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any remaining evidence of the Taíno.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jnht.com/archaeology/barbican_rescue.php |title=Jamaican National Heritage Trust |date=28 September 2007 |access-date=26 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928013715/http://www.jnht.com/archaeology/barbican_rescue.php |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref>

===Spanish rule (1509–1655)===
{{main|Colony of Santiago}}

[[File:Cristobal Columbus20231003 115330.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Cristopher Columbus]] in [[St. Ann Parish]]]]
Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Jamaica, claiming the island for Spain after landing there in 1494 on his second voyage to the Americas.<ref name="EBJH"/> His probable landing point was Dry Harbour, called [[Discovery Bay, Jamaica|Discovery Bay]],<ref name="columbus">{{cite web |url=http://www.columbusnavigation.com/cctl.shtml|title=A Christopher Columbus Timeline |last=Pickering |first=Keith A. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060421053355/http://www.columbusnavigation.com/cctl.shtml |archive-date=21 April 2006 |url-status=dead |access-date=18 April 2018}}</ref> and [[Saint Ann Parish|St. Ann's Bay]] was named "Saint Gloria" by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land. He later returned in 1503; however, he was shipwrecked and he and his crew were forced to live on Jamaica for a year while waiting to be rescued.<ref>[[Samuel Eliot Morison]], ''Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus'', 1942, pp. 653–54. [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], ''Christopher Columbus, Mariner'', 1955, pp. 184–92.</ref>

One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, [[Sevilla la Nueva (Jamaica)|Sevilla]], which was established in 1509 by [[Juan de Esquivel]] but abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy.<ref name="JNHT">{{cite web |title=History of Jamaica |url=http://www.jnht.com/jamaica/hist_spanish.php |publisher=Jamaica National Heritage Trust |access-date=30 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926083214/http://jnht.com/jamaica/hist_spanish.php |archive-date=26 September 2010}}</ref> The capital was moved to [[Spanish Town]], then called ''St. Jago de la Vega'', around 1534.<ref name="EBJH"/><ref name="Spanish town">{{cite web |title=Spanish Town |url=http://www.jnht.com/heritage_site.php?id=217 |publisher=Jamaica National Heritage Trust |access-date=30 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100925160737/http://jnht.com/heritage_site.php?id=217 |archive-date=25 September 2010}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Taínos began dying in large numbers, both from introduced diseases and from enslavement by the Spanish.<ref name="EBJH"/> As a result, the Spanish began importing slaves from Africa to the island.<ref name=discja>{{cite web|title=Jamaican History I|url=http://www.discoverjamaica.com/gleaner/discover/geography/history1.htm|publisher=Discover Jamaica|access-date=23 August 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805083846/http://www.discoverjamaica.com/gleaner/discover/geography/history1.htm|archive-date=5 August 2013}}</ref>

Many slaves managed to escape, forming autonomous communities in remote and easily defended areas in the interior of Jamaica, mixing with the remaining Taino; these communities became known as [[Jamaican Maroons|Maroons]].<ref name="EBJH"/> [[History of the Jews in Jamaica|Many Jews fled the Spanish Inquisition]] to live on the island.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Portuguese Jews of Jamaica |author=Arbell, M. |isbn=9789768125699 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-35vXOgop6QC |year=2000 |publisher=Canoe Press}}</ref> They lived as [[conversos]] and were often persecuted by the Spanish rulers, and some turned to [[Jewish pirates|piracy against the Spanish Empire's shipping]].<ref>
Kritzler, Edward, ''The Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean,'' Anchor, 2009, p. 15, {{ISBN|0767919521}}</ref>

By the early 17th century it is estimated that no more than 2,500–3,000 people lived on Jamaica.<ref name="EBJH"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Parker |first=Matthew |date=2011 |title=The Sugar Barons}}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2019}}

===Early British period===
{{Main|Colony of Jamaica}}
[[File:Morgan,Henry.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Henry Morgan]] was a [[Piracy in the Caribbean|Caribbean pirate]], privateer, plantation owner and slaveholder; he had first come to the West Indies as an indentured servant, like most of the early English colonists.<ref>[http://www.historynet.com/henry-morgan-the-pirate-who-invaded-panama-in-1671.htm "Henry Morgan: The Pirate Who Invaded Panama in 1671"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612044508/http://www.historynet.com/henry-morgan-the-pirate-who-invaded-panama-in-1671.htm |date=12 June 2008 }}, Historynet.com.</ref>]]
The English began taking an interest in the island and, following a failed attempt to conquer [[Captaincy General of Santo Domingo|Santo Domingo]] on [[Hispaniola]], [[William Penn (Royal Navy officer)|Admiral William Penn]] and General [[Robert Venables]] led an [[invasion of Jamaica]] in 1655.<ref>*{{cite book |last=Parker |first=Matthew |date=2011 |title=The Sugar Barons}}</ref> Battles at [[Battle of Ocho Rios|Ocho Rios in 1657]] and the [[Battle of Rio Nuevo|Rio Nuevo in 1658]] resulted in Spanish defeats; in 1660 the Maroon community under the leadership of [[Juan de Bolas]] switched sides from the Spanish, and began supporting the English. With their help, the Spanish defeat was secured.<ref name="jamsenghist">{{cite web|title=Jamaica's English History|url=http://www.jnht.com/history_english.php|publisher=Jamaica National Heritage Trust|access-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317015826/http://www.jnht.com/history_english.php|archive-date=17 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1661 English civil government was formed and Roundhead soldiers turned their attention to governance and agricultural responsibilities.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.2307/1923356 | doi=10.2307/1923356 | jstor=1923356 | last1=Bennett | first1=J. Harry | title=Cary Helyar, Merchant and Planter of Seventeenth-Century Jamaica | journal=The William and Mary Quarterly | year=1964 | volume=21 | issue=1 | pages=53–76  | issn = 0043-5597 }}</ref>

When the English captured Jamaica, most Spanish colonists fled, with the exception of Spanish Jews, who chose to remain. Spanish slave holders freed their slaves before leaving.<ref name="jamsenghist"/> Many slaves dispersed into the mountains, joining the already established [[maroon (people)|maroon]] communities.<ref name="maroons">{{cite web|last=Benitez|first=Suzette|title=The Maroons|url=http://scholar.library.miami.edu/slaves/Maroons/individual_essays/suzette1.html|access-date=30 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823070511/http://scholar.library.miami.edu/slaves/Maroons/individual_essays/suzette1.html|archive-date=23 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> During the centuries of slavery, [[Jamaican Maroons]] established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence for generations, under the leadership of Maroon leaders such as [[Juan de Serras]].<ref>Mavis Campbell, ''The Maroons of Jamaica 1655–1796: a History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal'' (Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey, 1988), pp. 14–25.</ref>

Meanwhile, the Spanish made several attempts to re-capture the island, prompting the British to support pirates attacking Spanish ships in the Caribbean; as a result piracy became rampant on Jamaica, with the city of [[Port Royal]] becoming notorious for its lawlessness. Spain later recognised English possession of the island with the [[Treaty of Madrid (1670)]].<ref>C. V. Black, ''History of Jamaica'' (London: Collins, 1975), p. 54.</ref> After that, the English authorities sought to rein in the worst excesses of the pirates.<ref name="EBJH"/>

In 1660, the population of Jamaica was about 4,500 white and 1,500 black.<ref name="population">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08270a.htm Donovan, J. (1910). Jamaica.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029204716/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08270a.htm |date=29 October 2009 }} ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]''. New York: Robert Appleton Company</ref> By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugar cane plantations worked by large numbers of slaves, black Africans formed a majority of the population.<ref>[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090628132038/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_n1_v28/ai_16106981/pg_2 Trevor Burnard, "A failed settler society: marriage and demographic failure in early Jamaica"], ''Journal of Social History'', Fall, 1994.</ref> The [[Irish people in Jamaica|Irish in Jamaica]] also formed a large part of the island's early population, making up two-thirds of the white population on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the English population. They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after the conquest of 1655. The majority of Irish were transported by force as political prisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoing [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://tudorstuartireland.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/tsi-2015-abstracts.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=19 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014000146/https://tudorstuartireland.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/tsi-2015-abstracts.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Migration of large numbers of Irish to the island continued into the 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irlandeses.org/0711rodgers2.htm |title=Rodgers, Nini, 'The Irish in the Caribbean 1641–1837: An Overview' |publisher=Irlandeses.org |access-date=2017-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119044057/http://www.irlandeses.org/0711rodgers2.htm |archive-date=19 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A limited form of local government was introduced with the creation of the [[House of Assembly of Jamaica]] in 1664; however, it represented only a tiny number of rich plantation owners.<ref name="HJ">[[Frank Cundall|Cundall, Frank]]. (1915) [https://archive.org/details/cu31924020417527/page/n45 ''Historic Jamaica''.] London: Institute of Jamaica. p. 15.</ref> In 1692, the colony was rocked by an [[1692 Jamaica earthquake|earthquake]] that resulted in several thousand deaths and the almost complete destruction of Port Royal.<ref name="USGS">{{cite web |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/events/1692_06_07.php |title=Historic Earthquakes: Jamaica 1692 June 07 UTC |last=USGS |date=21 October 2009 |access-date=6 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408181146/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/events/1692_06_07.php |archive-date=8 April 2012}}</ref>

===18th–19th centuries===
{{main|Slavery in colonial British America}}

[[File:Duperly (1833) Destruction of the Roehampton Estate January 1832.png|thumb|right|A plantation set alight during the Baptist War of 1831–32]]
During the 1700s the economy boomed, based largely on sugar and other crops for export such as [[coffee]], [[cotton]] and [[indigo]]. All these crops were worked by black slaves, who lived short and often brutal lives with no rights, being the property of a small planter-class.<ref name="EBJH"/> In the 18th century, slaves ran away and joined the Maroons in increasing numbers, and resulted in The [[First Maroon War]] (1728 – 1739/40), which ended in stalemate. The British government sued for peace, and signed treaties with the Leeward Maroons led by [[Cudjoe]] and [[Accompong]] in 1739, and the Windward Maroons led by [[Quao]] and [[Queen Nanny]] in 1740.<ref>Bev Carey, ''The Maroon Story: The Authentic and Original History of the Maroons in the History of Jamaica 1490–1880'' (Kingston, Jamaica: Agouti Press, 1997), pp. 315–355.</ref>

A large slave rebellion, known as [[Tacky's War]], broke out in 1760 but was defeated by the British and their Maroon allies.<ref name="jamaicans1">{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaicans.com/culture/articles_culture/tackys_rebellion.shtml |title=Jamaican Culture |publisher=Jamaicans.com |date=2014-06-20 |access-date=2015-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016000555/http://www.jamaicans.com/culture/articles_culture/tackys_rebellion.shtml |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the [[Second Maroon War|second conflict]] in 1795–96, many Maroons from the Maroon town of [[Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)]] were expelled to [[Nova Scotia]] and, later, [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="EBJH"/>[[File:Hakewill, A Picturesque Tour of the Island of Jamaica, Plate 04.jpg|thumb|Harbour Street, Kingston, {{Circa|1820}}]]By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted in black people outnumbering [[white people]] by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Although the British had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in from Spanish colonies and directly from Africa.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} While planning the abolition of slavery, the British Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves. They banned the use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day during each week when slaves could sell their produce,<ref>''History of the Catholic Church in Jamaica'', {{ISBN|978-0-829-40544-6}}, p. 68.</ref> prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves to attend church.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented and resisted the new laws. Members, with membership then restricted to European-descended Jamaicans, claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs. Slave owners feared possible revolts if conditions were lightened.
The British [[Slave Trade Act 1807|abolished the slave trade]] in 1807, but not the institution itself.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/caribbean-islands/8.htm The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622222104/http://countrystudies.us/caribbean-islands/8.htm |date=22 June 2011 }}, ''U.S. Library of Congress''.</ref> In 1831 a huge slave rebellion, known as the [[Baptist War]], broke out, led by the Baptist preacher [[Samuel Sharpe]]. The rebellion resulted in hundreds of deaths and the destruction of many plantations, and led to ferocious reprisals by the plantocracy class.<ref name="Revauger">{{cite book |title=The Abolition of Slavery – The British Debate 1787–1840 |first=Cécile |last=Révauger |author-link =Cécile Révauger |pages=107–108 |publisher=Presse Universitaire de France |date=October 2008 |isbn=978-2-13-057110-0}}</ref>
[[File:Proclamation_of_the_abolition_of_slavery_in_the_Colony_of_Jamaica,_August_1,_1838,_in_Spanish_Town_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Governor [[Sir Lionel Smith, 1st Baronet|Sir Lionel Smith]], accompanied by Revd [[James Phillippo]], proclaiming the [[Abolition of slavery in the United States|abolition of slavery]] in the colony of Jamaica, on 1 August 1838, from the King's House in [[Spanish Town]]]]
As a result of rebellions such as these, as well as the efforts of abolitionists, Britain outlawed slavery in its empire in 1834, with full [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|emancipation]] from chattel slavery declared in 1838.<ref name="EBJH" /> The population in 1834 was 371,070, of whom 15,000 were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 "coloured" or [[Free people of color|free people of colour]] ([[mixed race]]); and 311,070 were slaves.<ref name="population" />

The resulting labour shortage prompted the British to begin to "import" [[indentured servant]]s to supplement the labour pool, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations.<ref name="EBJH" /> Workers recruited from India began arriving in 1845, Chinese workers in 1854.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.embassyofjamaica.org/ABOUThistory.htm|title=Embassy of Jamaica, Washington, DC|website=www.embassyofjamaica.org|access-date=27 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620044655/http://www.embassyofjamaica.org/ABOUThistory.htm|archive-date=20 June 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>  Many Jamaicans are descendants of South Asian and Chinese people.<ref name="tortello" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Out of Many, One People: Chinese-Jamaicans Treasure Their Roots and Their Communities |author=Hemlock, Doreen |url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2005-04-17/features/0504140989_1_jamaican-chinese-new-year-chinese-heritage |newspaper=The Sun-Sentinel |date=17 April 2005 |access-date=27 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109134431/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2005-04-17/features/0504140989_1_jamaican-chinese-new-year-chinese-heritage |archive-date=9 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Over the next 20 years, several epidemics of [[cholera]], [[scarlet fever]], and [[smallpox]] hit the island, killing almost 60,000 people (about 10 per day).{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Nevertheless, in 1871 the census recorded a population of 506,154 people, 246,573 of whom were males, and 259,581 females. Their races were recorded as 13,101 white, 100,346 coloured (known as the Browning Class), and 392,707 black.<ref>{{cite book |date=1908 |title=Handbook of Jamaica |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookjamaica04cundgoog |location=Google Books |publisher=Jamaica Government |page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookjamaica04cundgoog/page/n50 37]}}</ref> There was an economic slump in this period, with many Jamaicans living in poverty. Dissatisfaction with this, and continued racial discrimination and marginalisation of the black majority, led to the outbreak of the [[Morant Bay rebellion]] in 1865, led by [[Paul Bogle]], which was put down by Governor [[Edward John Eyre|John Eyre]] with such brutality that he was recalled from his position.<ref name="EBJH" /> His successor, [[John Peter Grant]], enacted a series of social, financial and political reforms while aiming to uphold firm British rule over the island, which became a Crown Colony in 1866.<ref name="EBJH" /> In 1872 the capital was transferred from Spanish Town to Kingston.<ref name="EBJH" />

===Early 20th century===
[[File:Marcus Garvey 1924-08-05.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Marcus Garvey]], father of the Back to Africa Movement and Jamaica's first National Hero]]
In 1907, Jamaica was struck by [[1907 Kingston earthquake|an earthquake]] which, together with the subsequent fire, resulted in considerable destruction in Kingston and caused  the deaths of between 800 and 1,000 people.<ref name="Wilson">J. F. Wilson [https://books.google.com/books?id=AsKRgxpfL_gC&pg=PA69 ''Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Hot Springs''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215072629/https://books.google.com/books?id=AsKRgxpfL_gC&pg=PA69 |date=15 December 2019 }}, pg. 70, BiblioLife (2008), {{ISBN|0-554-56496-3}}</ref><ref name="EBJH"/>

Unemployment and poverty remained a problem for many Jamaicans. Various movements seeking political change arose as a result, most notably the [[Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League]] founded by [[Marcus Garvey]] in 1917. As well as seeking greater political rights and an improvement for the condition of workers, Garvey was also a prominent [[Pan-Africanist]] and proponent of the [[Back-to-Africa movement]].<ref name=back>{{cite web|title=Historian situates 'back-to-Africa' movements in broad context|url=http://news.stanford.edu/news/2006/march1/colonize-030106.html|work=1 March 2006|date=March 2006|publisher=Stanford.edu|access-date=24 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729121919/http://news.stanford.edu/news/2006/march1/colonize-030106.html|archive-date=29 July 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> He was also one of the chief inspirations behind Rastafari, a religion founded in Jamaica in the 1930s that combined Christianity with an [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentric]] theology focused on the figure of [[Haile Selassie]], Emperor of [[Ethiopia]]. Despite occasional persecution, Rastafari grew to become an established faith on the island, later spreading abroad.

The [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s hit Jamaica hard. As part of the [[British West Indian labour unrest of 1934–39]], Jamaica saw numerous strikes, culminating in a strike in 1938 that turned into a riot.<ref>Hamilton, Janice. ''Jamaica in Pictures'', p. 30. Twenty-First Century Books (2005), {{ISBN|0-8225-2394-9}}</ref><ref name="EBJH"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Rebellion of 1938 and its Aftermath|last=Post|first=Ken|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff|year=1978|isbn=9024721407|location=The Hague, Netherlands}}</ref>
As a result, the British government instituted [[Report of West India Royal Commission (Moyne Report)|a commission]] to look into the causes of the disturbances; their report recommended political and economic reforms in Britain's Caribbean colonies.<ref name="EBJH" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Cary |title=The Twilight of Colonial Rule in the British West Indies: Nationalist Assertion vs. Imperial Hubris in the 1930s |journal=Journal of Caribbean History |year=1996 |volume=30 |issue=1/2 |page=2 |url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/45526514}} {{dead link |date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> A new House of Representatives was established in 1944, elected by universal adult suffrage.<ref name="EBJH" /> During this period Jamaica's two-party system emerged, with the creation of the [[Jamaican Labour Party]] (JLP) under [[Alexander Bustamante]] and the [[People's National Party]] (PNP) under [[Norman Manley]].<ref name="EBJH" />

Jamaica slowly gained increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. In 1958 it became a province in the [[Federation of the West Indies]], a federation of several of [[British West Indies|Britain's Caribbean colonies]].<ref name="EBJH"/> Membership of the Federation proved to be divisive, however, and a [[1961 Jamaican Federation of the West Indies membership referendum|referendum]] on the issue saw a slight majority voting to leave.<ref name="EBJH"/> After leaving the Federation, Jamaica attained full [[Independence of Jamaica|independence]] on 6 August 1962.<ref name="EBJH"/> The new state retained, however, its membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] (with the British monarch as head of state) and adopted a [[Westminster parliamentary system|Westminster-style parliamentary system]]. Bustamante, at the age of 78, became the country's first prime minister.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Jamaica: Self-government |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/299716/Jamaica/214972/Self-government#ref515864 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=24 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229101146/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/299716/Jamaica/214972/Self-government#ref515864 |archive-date=29 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The West Indies Federation |url=http://www.caricom.org/jsp/community/west_indies_federation.jsp?menu=community |work=2011 |publisher=CARICOM |access-date=24 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929234257/http://www.caricom.org/jsp/community/west_indies_federation.jsp?menu=community |archive-date=29 September 2013 }}</ref>

===Post-independence era===
{{Main|Independence of Jamaica}}
Strong economic growth, averaging approximately 6% per year, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative JLP governments; these were led by successive Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante, [[Donald Sangster]] (who died of natural causes within two months of taking office) and [[Hugh Shearer]].<ref name="EBJH"/> The growth was fuelled by high levels of private investment in [[bauxite]]/[[alumina]], [[tourism]], the manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. In the [[1967 Jamaican general election]], the JLP were victorious again, winning 33 out of 53 seats, with the PNP taking 20 seats.<ref name="Dieter Nohlen 2005 p. 430">Dieter Nohlen (2005), ''Elections in the Americas: A data handbook'', Volume I, p. 430.</ref>

In terms of foreign policy Jamaica became a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], seeking to retain strong ties with Britain and the United States whilst also developing links with Communist states such as Cuba.<ref name="EBJH"/>

[[File:Michael Manley.jpg|thumb|right|Michael Manley, Prime Minister 1972–1980 and 1989–1992]]
The optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro-Jamaicans, and a concern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor, many of whom ended up living in crime-ridden shanty towns in Kingston.<ref name="EBJH"/> This led to the voters [[1972 Jamaican general election|electing the PNP]] under [[Michael Manley]] in 1972. The PNP won 37 seats to the JLP's 16.<ref name="Dieter Nohlen 2005 p. 430"/>

Manley's government enacted various social reforms, such as a higher [[minimum wage]], land reform, legislation for women's equality, greater housing construction and an increase in educational provision.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://michaelmanley.org/about/trade-unionist/ |title=Trade Unionist |first=Peter Scott Chrysalis |last=Communications |access-date=11 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428093659/http://michaelmanley.org/about/trade-unionist/ |archive-date=28 April 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="EBJH"/> Internationally he improved ties with the Communist bloc and vigorously opposed the [[apartheid]] regime in [[South Africa]].<ref name="EBJH"/>

In 1976, the PNP won another landslide, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent.<ref name="Dieter Nohlen p. 430">Dieter Nohlen (2005) ''Elections in the Americas: A data handbook'', Volume I, p. 430.</ref> However, the economy faltered in this period due to a combination of internal and external factors (such as the oil shocks).<ref name="EBJH"/> The rivalry between the JLP and PNP became intense, and [[Jamaican political conflict|political and gang-related violence]] grew significantly in this period.<ref name="EBJH"/>

By 1980, Jamaica's gross national product had declined to some 25% below its 1972 level.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Seeking change, in 1980 Jamaicans voted the JLP [[1980 Jamaican general election|back in]] under [[Edward Seaga]], the JLP winning 51 seats to the PNP's nine seats.<ref name="Dieter Nohlen 2005 p. 430"/><ref name="EBJH"/> Firmly anti-Communist, Seaga cut ties with Cuba and sent troops to support the [[US invasion of Grenada]] in 1983.<ref name="EBJH"/> The economic deterioration, however, continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors. The largest and third-largest alumina producers, [[Alpart]] and [[Alcoa]], closed; and there was a significant reduction in production by the second-largest producer, [[Alcan]].{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry. There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to the economy.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Owing to rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, the government sought [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) financing, which was dependent on implementing various austerity measures.<ref name="EBJH"/> These resulted in strikes in 1985 and a decline in support for the Seaga government, exacerbated by criticism of the government's response to the devastation caused by [[Hurricane Gilbert]] in 1988.<ref name="EBJH"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/27/magazine/showdown-in-jamaica.html|title=Showdown in Jamaica|date=27 November 1988|work=The New York Times|access-date=19 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919230610/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/27/magazine/showdown-in-jamaica.html|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Having now de-emphasised socialism and adopting a more centrist position, Michael Manley and the PNP were [[1989 Jamaican general election|re-elected in 1989]], winning 45 seats to the JLP's 15.<ref name="Nohlen 2005 p. 430">[[Dieter Nohlen|Nohlen, D]] (2005) ''Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I'', p. 430, {{ISBN|978-0-19-928357-6}}.</ref><ref name="EBJH"/>

The PNP went on to win a string of elections, under Prime Ministers Michael Manley (1989–1992), [[P. J. Patterson]] (1992–2005) and [[Portia Simpson-Miller]] (2005–2007). In the [[1993 Jamaican general election]], Patterson led the PNP to victory, winning 52 seats to the JLP's eight seats. Patterson also won the [[1997 Jamaican general election]], by another landslide margin of 50 seats to the JLP's 10 seats.<ref name="Dieter Nohlen p. 430"/> Patterson's third consecutive victory came in the [[2002 Jamaican general election]], when the PNP retained power, but with a reduced seat majority of 34 seats to 26. Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced by [[Portia Simpson-Miller]], Jamaica's first female Prime Minister. The turnout slowly declined during this period of time, from 67.4% in 1993 to 59.1% in 2002.<ref name="Nohlen 2005 p. 430"/>

During this period various economic reforms were introduced, such as deregulating the finance sector and floating the Jamaican dollar, as well as greater investment in infrastructure, whilst also retaining a strong social safety net.<ref name="EBJH"/> Political violence, so prevalent in the previous two decades, declined significantly.<ref name="EBJH"/><ref>Franklyn, Delano (ed.): 2002. ''The Challenges of Change: P. J. Patterson Budget Presentations 1992–2002''. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers.</ref>

In [[2007 Jamaican general election|2007]] the PNP was defeated by the JLP by a narrow margin of 32 seats to 28, with a turnout of 61.46%.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre |title=Jamaican general election results 3 September 2007 |url=http://www.caribbeanelections.com/jm/elections/jm_results_2007.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205164530/http://www.caribbeanelections.com/jm/elections/jm_results_2007.asp |archive-date=5 December 2020 |access-date=24 December 2020}}</ref> This election ended 18 years of PNP rule, and [[Bruce Golding]] became the new prime minister.<ref>[http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20070909/news/news2.html Pollster's diary: virtual motion picture of campaign 2007] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622031614/http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20070909/news/news2.html |date=2008-06-22}}, ''Jamaica Gleaner'', 9 September 2007.</ref> Golding's tenure (2007–2010) was dominated by the effects of the [[Great Recession|global recession]], as well as the fallout from [[2010 Kingston unrest|an attempt]] by Jamaican police and military to arrest drug lord [[Christopher Coke]] in 2010 which erupted in violence, resulting in over 70 deaths.<ref name="EBJH"/><ref name="OAS body raises concerns over Jamaica as death toll rises">{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/05/27/jamaica.violence/ |title=OAS body raises concerns over Jamaica as death toll rises |date=27 May 2010 |publisher=[[CNN]] |access-date=27 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530095457/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/05/27/jamaica.violence/ |archive-date=30 May 2010<!--DASHBot--> |url-status=live}}</ref> As a result of this incident Golding resigned and was replaced by Andrew Holness in 2011.

Independence, however widely celebrated in Jamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century. In 2011, a survey showed that approximately 60% of Jamaicans believe that the country would have been better off had it remained a British colony, with only 17% believing it would have been worse off, citing as problems years of social and fiscal mismanagement in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110628/lead/lead1.html |title=Give Us The Queen! |date=28 June 2011 |work=The Gleaner |access-date=13 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209064054/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110628/lead/lead1.html |archive-date=9 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/most-jamaicans-would-prefer-remain-british-294753 |title=Most Jamaicans Would Prefer To Remain British |last=Ghosh |first=Palash |date=29 June 2011 |access-date=13 February 2017 |website=[[International Business Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214102304/http://www.ibtimes.com/most-jamaicans-would-prefer-remain-british-294753 |archive-date=14 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Holness and the JLP were defeated in the [[2011 Jamaican general election]], which saw Portia Simpson-Miller and the PNP return to power. The number of seats had been increased to 63, and the PNP swept to power with a landslide 42 seats to the JLP's 21. The voter turnout was 53.17%.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre |title=Jamaican general election results 29 December 2011 |url=http://www.caribbeanelections.com/jm/elections/jm_results_2011.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208122455/http://www.caribbeanelections.com/jm/elections/jm_results_2011.asp |archive-date=8 December 2020 |access-date=24 December 2020}}</ref>

Holness's JLP won the [[2016 Jamaican general election|2016]] general election narrowly, defeating Simpson-Miller's PNP, on 25 February. The PNP won 31 seats to the JLP's 32. As a result, Simpson-Miller became Opposition Leader for a second time. The voter turnout dipped below 50% for the first time, registering just 48.37%.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre |title=Jamaican general election results 25 February 2016 |url=http://www.caribbeanelections.com/jm/elections/jm_results_2016.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731030013/http://www.caribbeanelections.com/jm/elections/jm_results_2016.asp |archive-date=31 July 2020 |access-date=24 December 2020}}</ref>

In the [[2020 Jamaican general election|2020 general election]], Andrew Holness made history for the JLP by accomplishing a second consecutive win for the Jamaica Labour Party, winning 49 seats to 14 won by the PNP, led this time by [[Peter Phillips (politician)|Peter Phillips]]. The last time a consecutive win occurred for the JLP was in 1980. However, the turnout at this election was just 37%, probably affected by the coronavirus pandemic.<ref>[http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20200903/javotes2020-jlp-trounces-pnp-49-14-seats JLP Trounces PNP 49 To 14 Seats] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200905085739/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/news/20200903/javotes2020-jlp-trounces-pnp-49-14-seats |date=5 September 2020 }} The Gleaner, 3 September 2020</ref>