Editing Ivan Pavlov (section)

==Career==
[[File:Nesterov-Pavlov.jpg|thumb|A 1935 portrait of Pavlov by [[Mikhail Nesterov]]]]

=== Studies in Germany ===
After completing his doctorate, Pavlov went to [[German Empire|Germany]], where he studied in [[Leipzig]] with [[Carl Ludwig]] and Eimear Kelly in the Heidenhain laboratories in [[Breslau]]. He remained there from 1884 to 1886. Heidenhain was studying digestion in dogs, using an exteriorized section of the stomach. However, Pavlov perfected the technique by overcoming the problem of maintaining the external nerve supply. The exteriorized section became known as the Heidenhain or Pavlov pouch.<ref name="Credo Reference"/>

=== Return to Russia ===
In 1886, Pavlov returned to Russia to look for a new position. His application for the chair of physiology at the [[University of Saint Petersburg]] was rejected. Eventually, Pavlov was offered the chair of pharmacology at [[Tomsk University]] in Siberia and at the [[University of Warsaw]] in Poland. He did not take up either post. In 1890, he was appointed the role of professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy and occupied the position for five years.<ref name="Asratyan 1953 17–18">{{harvp|Asratyan|1953|pp=17–18}}</ref> In 1891, Pavlov was invited to the [[Institute of Experimental Medicine]] in St. Petersburg to organize and direct the Department of Physiology.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Windholz|first1=George|title=Ivan P. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological work|journal=American Psychologist|date=1997|volume=52|issue=9|pages=941–946|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.52.9.941}}</ref>

Over a 45-year period, under his direction, the institute became one of the most important centers of physiological research in the world.<ref name=nobelbio/> Pavlov continued to direct the Department of Physiology at the institute, while taking up the chair of physiology at the Medical Military Academy in 1895. Pavlov would head the physiology department at the academy continuously for three decades.<ref name="Asratyan 1953 17–18"/>

=== Nobel Prize ===
Starting in 1901, Pavlov was nominated over four successive years for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He did not win the prize until 1904 because his previous nominations were not specific to any discovery, but based on a variety of laboratory findings.<ref name="Credo Reference2">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ivan Pavlov|encyclopedia=Science in the Early Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia.}}</ref> When Pavlov received the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] it was specified that he did so "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged".<ref name="Nobel_1904"/>

=== Studies of digestion ===
At the Institute of Experimental Medicine, Pavlov carried out his classical experiments on the digestive glands, which would eventually grant him the aforementioned Nobel prize.<ref>{{harvp|Asratyan|1953|p=18}}</ref>

Pavlov's laboratory housed a full-scale kennel for the experimental canines. Pavlov was interested in observing their long-term physiological processes. This required keeping them alive and healthy to conduct chronic experiments, as he called them. These were experiments over time, designed to understand the normal functions of dogs. This was a new kind of study, because previously experiments had been "acute", meaning that the dog underwent [[vivisection]] which ultimately killed it.<ref name="Credo Reference2"/> Pavlov would often remove the [[esophagus]] of several dogs and created a [[fistula]] in their throats.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/kingdom-dogs#:~:text=To%20%27solve%20the%20problem%27%20of,much%20the%20dog%20ate%2C%20the | title=The kingdom of dogs }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/24/drool | title=Drool | magazine=The New Yorker | date=17 November 2014 | last1=Specter | first1=Michael }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.iflscience.com/pavlov-s-dog-experiment-was-much-more-disturbing-than-you-think-65729 | title=Pavlov's Dog Experiment Was Much More Disturbing Than You Think | date=13 October 2022 }}</ref>

=== Other activities ===
[[File:СССР. Павлов И.П., Г. Уэллс и внучка Павлова Милочка. 1924г. (pavlovs museum).jpg|thumb|Pavlov (right) and his granddaughter Milochka pictured with [[H. G. Wells]] in 1924]]
A 1921 article by Sergius Morgulis in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' was critical of Pavlov's work, raising concerns about the environment in which these experiments had been performed. Based on a report from [[H. G. Wells]], claiming that Pavlov grew potatoes and carrots in his laboratory the article stated, "It is gratifying to be assured that Professor Pavlov is raising potatoes only as a pastime and still gives the best of his genius to scientific investigation".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.53.1360.74|pmid=17790056|title=Professor Pavlov|year=1921 |author=Morgulis, S.|journal=Science|volume=53|issue=1360|page=74|bibcode=1921Sci....53Q..74M|s2cid=29949004 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1448261}}</ref> That same year, Pavlov began holding laboratory meetings known as the 'Wednesday meetings' at which he spoke frankly on many topics, including his views on psychology. These meetings lasted until he died in 1936.<ref name="Credo Reference2"/>

=== Relationship with the Soviet government ===
Pavlov was highly regarded by the [[Soviet government]], and he was able to continue his research. He was praised by [[Vladimir Lenin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/jan/24.htm|title=Concerning The Conditions Ensuring The Research Work Of Academician I. P. Pavlov and his associates|author=Lenin, V.I.|work=[[Izvestia]]|date=11 February 1921}}</ref> Despite praise from the Soviet Union government, the money that poured in to support his laboratory, and the honours he was given, Pavlov made no attempts to conceal the disapproval and contempt with which he regarded [[Soviet Communism]].<ref name="Britannica"/>

In 1923, Pavlov stated that he would not sacrifice even the hind leg of a frog to the type of social experiment that the [[Communist regime]] was conducting in Russia. Four years later, he wrote to [[Joseph Stalin]], protesting at what was being done to Russian intellectuals and saying he was ashamed to be a Russian.<ref name="cavendish9"/> After the murder of [[Sergei Kirov]] in 1934, Pavlov wrote several letters to [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] criticizing the mass persecutions that followed, and asking for the reconsideration of cases pertaining to several people he knew personally.<ref name="cavendish9"/>

In the final years of his life, Pavlov's attitude towards the Soviet government softened; without fully endorsing its policies, he praised the Soviet government for its support of scientific institutions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Graham |first=Loren R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EA1MPQAACAAJ |title=Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union |date=1989 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-06443-9 |pages=161 }}</ref> In 1935, a few months before his death, Pavlov read a draft of the 1936 "[[Stalin Constitution]]" and expressed his pleasure at the apparent dawn of a more free and democratic Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Todes |first=Daniel P. |date=1995 |title=Pavlov and the Bolsheviks |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23331887 |journal=History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=379–418 |jstor=23331887 |issn=0391-9714}}</ref>

=== Death and burial ===
Conscious until his final moments, Pavlov asked one of his students to sit beside his bed and to record the circumstances of his dying. He wanted to create unique evidence of subjective experiences of this terminal phase of life.<ref>Chance, Paul (1988). ''Learning and Behaviour''. Wadsworth Pub. Co. {{ISBN|0-534-08508-3}}. p. 48.</ref> Pavlov died on 27 February 1936 of [[double pneumonia]] at the age of 86.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/769124 | jstor=769124 | title=Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. 1849-1936 | last1=Anrep | first1=G. V. | journal=Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society | date=1936 | volume=2 | issue=5 | pages=1–18 | doi=10.1098/rsbm.1936.0001 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=27 February 1936 |title=IVAN PAVLOV DEAD; PHYSIOLOGIST, 86; |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1936/02/27/archives/ivan-pavlov-dead-physiologist-86-discoverer-of-the-conditioned.html |access-date=12 October 2024 |work=The New York Times |page=19 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He was given a grand funeral, and his study and laboratory were preserved as a museum in his honour.<ref name="cavendish9"/> His grave is in the Literatorskie mostki (writers' footways) section of [[Volkovo Cemetery]] in St. Petersburg.

===Reflex system research===
{{Further|Reflex}}
{{for|broader coverage of 'Pavlovian response'|Classical conditioning}}
Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology and neurological sciences. Most of his work involved research in [[temperament]], [[classical conditioning|conditioning]] and [[Reflex action|involuntary reflex actions]].
Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing ''The Work of the Digestive Glands'' in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/press.html |title=1904 Nobel prize laureates |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date=10 December 1904 |access-date=15 April 2012}}</ref>

These experiments included surgically extracting portions of the digestive system from nonhuman animals, severing nerve bundles to determine the effects, and implanting [[fistula]]s between digestive organs and an external pouch to examine the organ's contents. This research served as a base for broad research on the [[digestive system]]. Further work on reflex actions involved involuntary reactions to stress and pain.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}}

===Nervous system research===
[[File:One of Pavlov's dogs.jpg|thumb|One of Pavlov's dogs with a surgically implanted [[cannula]] to measure [[saliva]]tion, [[taxidermy|preserved]] in the Pavlov Museum in [[Ryazan]], Russia]]
Pavlov was always interested in biomarkers of temperament types described by Hippocrates and Galen. He called these biomarkers "properties of nervous systems" and identified three main properties: (1) strength, (2) mobility of nervous processes and (3) a balance between excitation and inhibition and derived four types based on these three properties. He extended the definitions of the four temperament types under study at the time: choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine, and melancholic, updating the names to "the strong and impetuous type, the strong equilibrated and quiet type, the strong equilibrated and lively type, and the weak type", respectively.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

Pavlov and his researchers observed and began the study of [[transmarginal inhibition]] (TMI), the body's natural response of shutting down when exposed to overwhelming stress or pain by electric shock.<ref>Mazlish, Bruce (1995), ''Fourth Discontinuity: The Co-Evolution of Humans and Machines'', Yale University Press, pp. 122–123, {{ISBN|0-300-06512-4}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=August 2021}} This research showed how all temperament types responded to the stimuli the same way, but different temperaments move through the responses at different times. He commented "that the most basic inherited difference ... was how soon they reached this shutdown point and that the quick-to-shut-down have a fundamentally different type of nervous system."<ref>Rokhin, L, Pavlov, I and Popov, Y. (1963), ''Psychopathology and Psychiatry'', Foreign Languages Publication House: Moscow.</ref>

Pavlov carried out experiments on the digestive glands, as well as investigated the [[stomach|gastric]] function of dogs, and eventually won the [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]] in 1904,<ref name="cavendish9" /><ref name="Nobel_1904">{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1904/ |title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1904 |publisher=nobelprize.org |access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref> becoming the first Russian Nobel laureate. A survey in the ''[[Review of General Psychology]]'', published in 2002, ranked Pavlov as the 24th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haggbloom |first1=Steven J. |display-authors=etal |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last2=Powell |first2=John L. III |s2cid=145668721 |citeseerx=10.1.1.586.1913 }}</ref>

Pavlov's principles of classical conditioning have been found to operate across a variety of [[behavior therapy|behavior therapies]] and in experimental and clinical settings, such as educational classrooms and even reducing phobias with [[systematic desensitization]].<ref name="Olson">{{cite book|last1=Olson|first1=M. H.|last2=Hergenhahn|first2=B. R.|title=An Introduction to Theories of Learning|date=2009|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|pages=201–203|edition=8th}}</ref><ref name=ClinicalBehaviorAnalysis>{{cite book|last=Dougher|first=Michael J.|title=Clinical Behavior Analysis|date=1 August 1999|publisher=Context Press |isbn = 1-878978-38-1}}</ref>

===Classical conditioning===
The basics of Pavlov's [[classical conditioning]] serve as a historical backdrop for current learning theories.<ref>{{cite book|last1=William Moore|first1=J.|last2=Manning|first2=S. A.|last3=Smith|first3=W. I.|isbn=978-0-07-042902-4|title=Conditioning and Instrumental Learning|date=1978|publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company|location=New York, NY|pages=52–61}}</ref> However, the Russian physiologist's initial interest in classical conditioning occurred almost by accident during one of his experiments on digestion in dogs.<ref name=Tarpy>{{cite book|last1=Tarpy|first1=Roger M.|title=Basic Principles of Learning|date=1975|publisher=Scott, Foresman and Company|location=Glenview, IL|pages=15–17}}</ref> Considering that Pavlov worked closely with nonhuman animals throughout many of his experiments, his early contributions were primarily about learning in nonhuman animals. However, the fundamentals of classical conditioning have been examined across many different organisms, including humans.<ref name=Tarpy /> The basic underlying principles of Pavlov's classical conditioning have extended to a variety of settings, such as classrooms and learning environments.

Classical conditioning focuses on using preceding conditions to alter behavioral reactions. The principles underlying classical conditioning have influenced preventative antecedent control strategies used in the classroom.<ref name=Kern>{{cite journal|last1=Kern|first1=Lee|last2=Clemens|first2=Nathan H.|title=Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior|journal=Psychology in the Schools|date=2007|volume=44|issue=1|pages=65–75|doi=10.1002/pits.20206}}</ref> Classical conditioning set the groundwork for the present day [[behavior modification]] practices, such as antecedent control. Antecedent events and conditions are defined as those conditions occurring before the behavior.<ref name=Alberto>{{cite book|last1=Alberto|first1=Paul A.|last2=Troutman|first2=Anne C.|title=Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers|date=2013|publisher=Pearson Education, Inc.|location=New Jersey|edition=Ninth}}</ref> Pavlov's early experiments used manipulation of events or stimuli preceding behavior (i.e., a tone) to produce salivation in dogs much like teachers manipulate instruction and learning environments to produce positive behaviors or decrease maladaptive behaviors. Although he did not refer to the tone as an antecedent, Pavlov was one of the first scientists to demonstrate the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. Pavlov systematically presented and withdrew stimuli to determine the antecedents that were eliciting responses, which is similar to the ways in which educational professionals conduct functional behavior assessments.<ref name="Stichter">{{cite journal |last1=Stichter |first1=Janine P. |last2=Randolph |first2=Jena K. |last3=Kay |first3=Denise |last4=Gage |first4=Nicholas |title=The Use of Structural Analysis to Develop Antecedent-based Interventions for Students with Autism |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |date=June 2009 |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=883–896 |doi=10.1007/s10803-009-0693-8|pmid=19191017 |s2cid=31417515 }}</ref> Antecedent strategies are supported by empirical evidence to operate implicitly within classroom environments. Antecedent-based interventions are supported by research to be preventative, and to produce immediate reductions in problem behaviors.<ref name=Kern />