Editing Iran (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Iran}}
{{further|Timeline of Iranian history}}

=== Antiquity ===
{{Main|Medes|Achaemenid Empire|Parthian Empire|Sassanid Empire}}
[[File:Choqa Zanbil Darafsh 1 (36).JPG|thumb|[[Chogha Zanbil]] is one of the few extant [[ziggurat]]s outside of [[Mesopotamia]] and is considered to be the best preserved example in the world.]]
Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilisations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC.<ref name="People.cn">[http://en.people.cn/90001/90782/90874/6236885.html People, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224223600/http://en.people.cn/90001/90782/90874/6236885.html |date=24 February 2021 }}, retrieved 1 October 2007</ref> The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditional [[ancient Near East]] with [[Elam]] (3200–539 BC), and later with other peoples such as the [[Kassites]], [[Mannaeans]], and [[Gutian people|Gutians]]. [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] called the Persians the "first Historical People".<ref name="IRHEGEL">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Azadpour |first=M |title=HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |access-date=2015-04-11 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hegel-georg-wilhelm-friedrich |archive-date=2015-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411142730/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hegel-georg-wilhelm-friedrich |url-status=live}}</ref> 

The [[Medes]] are credited with founding Iran as a nation and empire, and established in 625 BC the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day. <ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Article: Media">{{Britannica|id=372125|title=Media}}</ref> In 612 BC, [[Cyaxares]] and the [[Babylonia|Babylon]]ian king [[Nabopolassar]] invaded Assyria and laid siege to and eventually destroyed [[Nineveh]], the Assyrian capital, which led to the fall of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].<ref name=Nineveh>{{cite book |title=The pre-Islamic Middle East |last=Sicker |first=Martin |year=2000 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-96890-8 |pages=68/69 }}</ref> [[Urartu]] was later on conquered and dissolved as well by the Medes.<ref>[http://www.starspring.com/ascender/urartu/urartu.html Urartu – Lost Kingdom of Van] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702205257/http://www.starspring.com/ascender/urartu/urartu.html |date=2015-07-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/urartu.htm|title=Urartu Civilization – All About Turkey|access-date=2015-06-18|archive-date=2015-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701005402/http://www.allaboutturkey.com/urartu.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> 

===The rise of the Achaemenid Empire===
[[File:Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent according to Oxford Atlas of World History 2002.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent]]

[[Cyrus the Great]] overthrew, in turn, the [[Medes|Median]], [[Lydia]]n, and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian]] empires, creating an empire far larger than Assyria. He was better able, through more benign policies, to reconcile his subjects to Persian rule; the longevity of his empire was one result. The Persian king, like the [[Assyria]]n, was also "[[King of Kings]]", ''xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām'' (''shāhanshāh'' in modern Persian) – "great king", [[Basileus|Megas Basileus]], as known by the [[Greeks]]. Cyrus's son, [[Cambyses II]], conquered the last major power of the region, [[ancient Egypt]], causing the collapse of the [[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt]].
 
===Darius I, Imperial Expansion, and the Greco-Persian Wars===
After the death of Cambyses II, [[Darius I]] ascended the throne by overthrowing the legitimate Achaemenid monarch [[Bardiya]]. Darius' first capital was at Susa, and he started the building program at [[Persepolis]]. He improved the extensive road system, and it is during his reign that mentions are first made of the [[Royal Road]], a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to [[Sardis]] with posting stations at regular intervals.<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/forgottenempire/persia/darius.html | title= Forgotten Empire— the world of Ancient Persia| publisher= The British Museum | year = 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070423012310/http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/forgottenempire/persia/darius.html |archive-date=2007-04-23 |access-date=2023-03-16}}</ref>

In 499 BC, [[Classical Athens|Athens]] lent support to a revolt in [[Miletus]], which resulted in the sacking of [[Sardis]]. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against mainland Greece known as the [[Greco-Persian Wars]], which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC, and is known as one of the most important wars in [[European history]]. In the [[First Persian invasion of Greece]], the Persian general [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedon a full part of Persia.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2011|p=345}} The war eventually turned out in defeat, however. Darius' successor [[Xerxes I]] launched the [[Second Persian invasion of Greece]]. At a crucial moment in the war, about half of mainland Greece was overrun by the Persians, including all territories to the north of the Isthmus of [[Corinth]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Carey|first1=Brian Todd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3OSfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT32|title=Warfare in the Ancient World|last2=Allfree|first2=Joshua B.|last3=Cairns|first3=John|date=2006-01-19|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-84884-630-2|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Aeschylus, Burian2009">{{cite book|author1=Aeschylus|author2=Peter Burian|author3=Alan Shapiro|title=The Complete Aeschylus: Volume II: Persians and Other Plays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0kTiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT18|date=17 February 2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-045183-7|page=18|access-date=12 September 2016|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923003450/https://books.google.com/books?id=0kTiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT18|url-status=live}}</ref> however, this was also turned out in a Greek victory, following the battles of [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]] and [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]], by which Persia lost its footholds in Europe, and eventually withdrew from it.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2011|pp=135–138, 342–345}} 

===Decline of the Achaemenids and Successor States===
The empire entered a period of decline, weakening it. From 334 BC to 331 BC, [[Alexander the Great]] defeated [[Darius III]] in the battles of [[Battle of the Granicus|Granicus]], [[Battle of Issus|Issus]] and [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugamela]], swiftly conquering the Achaemanid Empire by 331 BC. Alexander's empire broke up shortly after his death, and Alexander's general, [[Seleucus I Nicator]], tried to take control of Iran, [[Mesopotamia]], and later [[Syria]] and [[Anatolia]]. His empire was the [[Seleucid Empire]].

===The Sasanian Empire and Its Legacy===
The Arsacids of [[Parthia]],{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}} initially Seleucid vassals,{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=151}} originated as leaders of the Iranian{{efn|The Parni was an eastern Iranian tribe established on the Amu Darya in the conferedation of [[Dahae]].{{sfn|Lecoq|2011|p=151}} To Yarshater, they were a [[Sakas|Saka]] tribe, who penetrated Parthia, adopted its language, and eventually challenged the Seleucids' power in Parthia.{{sfn|Yarshater|2012|p=212–225}}}} [[Parni]] tribe in the northeastern steppes.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=162}} The Parthians gradually challenged Seleucid rule over Iran.{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} Parthian control of Iran was secured through the {{Circa}} 142 BC conquest of [[Babylonia]].{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} Although fighting continued for years, the death of [[Antiochus VII Sidetes]] in 129 BC effectively marked the collapse of the Seleucid Empire,{{Sfn|Strootman|2020|p=150}} which then lingered on as a [[rump state]] in Syria until conquered by the [[Roman Empire]] in the 60s BC.{{Sfn|Venning|2023|p=118}}

[[File:The Sasanian Empire at its apex under Khosrow II.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent {{Circa|620}}, under the reign of [[Khosrow II]]]]

The Parthian empire endured for five centuries, but frequent civil wars destabilized it. Parthian power evaporated when [[Ardashir I]], ruler of [[Istakhr]] in [[Persis]], revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, [[Artabanus IV of Parthia|Artabanus IV]], in 224&nbsp;AD. Ardashir established the [[Sasanian Empire]], which ruled Iran and much of the Near East until the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] of the 7th century AD. 

At their zenith, the Sasanians controlled all of modern-day Iran and [[Iraq]] and parts of the [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Arabian Peninsula]] (particularly [[Eastern Arabia]] and [[South Arabia]]), as well as the [[Caucasus]], the [[Levant]], and parts of [[Central Asia]] and [[South Asia]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Khosrow II (590–628 CE) |url=https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23003#:~:text=It%20was%20under%20Khosrow%20II,the%20early%20seventh%20century%20CE. |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240619204859/https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/23003 |archive-date=2024-06-19 |access-date=2025-02-27 |language=en}}</ref>  One of the high points in the history of Iranian civilization,<ref>Hourani, p. 87.</ref> the Sasanian Empire was characterized by a complex and centralized government bureaucracy and the revitalization of [[Zoroastrianism]] as a legitimizing and unifying ideal.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eiland |first=Murray |title=Atlas of World Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0195215830 |editor-last=Onians |editor-first=John |pages=80–81 |chapter=West Asia 300 BC–AD 600 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36355586}}</ref> This period saw the construction of many grand monuments, public works, and patronized cultural and educational institutions. Under the Sasanians, Iran's cultural influence spread far beyond the physical territory that it controlled, impacting regions as distant as [[Western Europe]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Durant |first1=Will |author1-link=Will Durant |title=The Age of Faith |date=1950 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axQVzwEACAAJ |language=en |quote=Repaying its debt, Sasanian art exported its forms and motives eastward into India, Turkestan, and China, westward into Syria, Asia Minor, Constantinople, the Balkans, Egypt, and Spain.}}</ref> [[East Africa|Eastern Africa]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html |title=Transoxiana 04: Sasanians in Africa |publisher=Transoxiana.com.ar |access-date=2013-12-16}}</ref> and [[History of China|China]] and [[History of India|India]].<ref>Sarfaraz, pp. 329–330</ref>

=== Medieval period === 
{{Main|Iranian Intermezzo|Tahirid dynasty|Saffarid dynasty|Ziyarid dynasty|Samanids|Sajid dynasty|Sallarid dynasty|Ilyasids|Buyid dynasty|Kakuyids|Seljuk Empire|Khwarazmian Empire|Ilkhanate|}}

Most of the Sasanian Empire's lifespan was overshadowed by the frequent [[Byzantine–Sasanian wars]], a continuation of the [[Roman–Parthian Wars]]. These wars weakened the empire and contributed to the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Islamic conquest of Persia]]. The [[Rashidun Caliphate]] conquered the Sasanian Empire between 632 and 654. 

Over time, the majority of Iranians converted to Islam. Most of the aspects of the previous Persian civilizations were not discarded but were absorbed by the new [[Islam]]ic polity. As [[Bernard Lewis]] has commented:
{{blockquote|"These events have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course valid, depending on one's angle of vision."<ref name="lewis">{{cite web|url=http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html |title=Iran in history |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |publisher=[[Tel Aviv University]] |access-date=2007-04-03  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429144545/http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/mel/lewis.html |archive-date=2007-04-29 }}</ref>}}

===Early Islamic Rule and Regional Resistance in Iran===
After the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651, the [[Arabs]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] adopted many Persian customs, especially the administrative and the court mannerisms. Arab provincial governors were undoubtedly either Persianized [[Arameans]] or ethnic Persians; certainly Persian remained the language of official business of the caliphate until the adoption of Arabic toward the end of the seventh century.<ref>Hawting G., ''The First Dynasty of Islam. The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750'', (London) 1986, pp. 63–64</ref> 

However, all of Iran was still not under Arab control, and the region of [[Daylam]] was under the control of the [[Daylamites]], while [[Tabaristan]] was under [[Dabuyid dynasty|Dabuyid]] and [[Paduspanids|Paduspanid]] control, and the [[Mount Damavand]] region under [[Masmughans of Damavand]]. The Arabs had invaded these regions several times but achieved no decisive result because of the inaccessible terrain of the regions. The most prominent ruler of the Dabuyids, known as [[Farrukhan the Great]] (r. 712–728), managed to hold his domains during his long struggle against the Arab general [[Yazid ibn al-Muhallab]], who was defeated by a combined Dailamite-Dabuyid army, and was forced to retreat from Tabaristan.<ref>Pourshariati (2008), pp. 312–313</ref>

[[File:Saffarids 900ad.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Saffarid dynasty]] in 900 AD]]
[[File:Iran circa 1000AD.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of the Iranian dynasties in the mid 10th-century]]

===The Abbasid Revolution and Iranian Renaissance===
Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam (especially Iranians) who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the [[Abbasid revolution]], in which the Umayyads were replaced with the [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasids]], descendants of Muhammad's uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abbas]].{{Sfn|Osman|2014|pp=62–63}}

The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries.{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties,{{Sfn|Lorentz|2007|p=xxviii}} the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]] in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo".{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}}

The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties.{{Sfn|Mahendrarajah|2019}} Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were the [[Tahirids]] in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] (821–873); the [[Saffarids]] in [[Sistan]] (861–1003, their rule lasted as maliks of Sistan until 1537); and the [[Samanids]] (819–1005), originally at [[Bukhara]]. The Samanids eventually ruled an area from central Iran to Pakistan.

By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control to the growing Persian faction known as the [[Buyid dynasty]] (934–1062). Since much of the Abbasid administration had been Persian anyway, the Buyids were quietly able to assume real power in Baghdad. The Buyids were defeated in the mid-11th century by the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq]] [[Oghuz Turks|Turks]], who continued to exert influence over the Abbasids, while publicly pledging allegiance to them.

===Islamization and Persianization===
[[Islamization]] was a long process by which [[Islam]] was gradually adopted by the majority population of Iran. As Persian Muslims consolidated their rule of the country, the Muslim population rose from approximately 40% in the mid-9th century to close to 90% by the end of the 11th century. [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] suggests that the rapid increase in conversion was aided by the Persian nationality of the rulers.<ref>Nasr, Hoseyn; Islam and the pliqht of modern man</ref> Although Persians adopted the religion of their conquerors, over the centuries they worked to protect and revive their distinctive language and culture, a process known as [[Persianization]]. Arabs and Turks participated in this attempt.<ref name="britannica2">''Encyclopædia Britannica'', "Seljuq", Online Edition, ([https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688 LINK] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219231803/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066688 |date=2007-12-19 }})</ref><ref>Richard Frye, The Heritage of Persia, p. 243.</ref><ref>Rayhanat al- adab, (3rd ed.), vol. 1, p. 181.</ref>

[[File:Historical Atlas of Iran - Plate No. 17 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Ilkhanate under [[Ghazan]]
]]

===The Seljuks and the Mongol Invasions===
From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title ''šāhānšāh'' ({{Literal translation|King of Kings}}) in its Persian form,{{sfn|Barthold|1962|p=108}} perhaps adopting it from the Buyids.{{Sfn|Blair|1992|p=6}} The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent.{{sfn|El-Azhari|2019|p=311}} One of these vassals was the [[Anushtegin dynasty]], which ruled the [[Khwarazm]] region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of [[Anushtegin Gharchai]], a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans.{{Sfn|Bosworth|1986}} In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler [[Ala al-Din Tekish|Tekish]] conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire.{{Sfn|Ross|1977|p=307}} The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title [[Khwarazmshah|''xwârazmšāh'']], traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} [[Konye-Urgench|Urganj]] was the Khwarazmian capital.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}}

In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols reached Iran. The region around [[Bukhara]] was conquered in 1220{{Sfn|Aigle|2024|p=26}} and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2009}} Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the [[Siege of Baghdad|fall of Baghdad]] and end of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]'s rule there in 1258.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}}

===The Ilkhanate and Aftermath===
After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. [[Kublai Khan]] (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} In much of the south-west of the empire (including Iran), power fell to [[Hulegu Khan]],{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}} who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|p=250}} Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a ''[[fatwa]]'' issued by the Shia scholar [[Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli]].{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=253–254, 256}} Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule.{{Sfn|Lane|2012|pp=253–254, 256}} [[Ghazan Khan]] (1295–1304) converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.{{Sfn|Rossabi|2002|p=32}}

After Ghazan's nephew [[Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan|Abu Said]] died in 1335, however, the Ilkhanate lapsed into civil war and was divided between several petty dynasties – most prominently the [[Jalayirids]], [[Muzaffarids (Iran)|Muzaffarids]], [[Sarbadars]] and [[Kartids]]. The mid-14th-century [[Black Death]] killed about 30% of the country's population.<ref>[http://www.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/kelly200509140843.asp Q&A with John Kelly on The Great Mortality on National Review Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109165503/http://www.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/kelly200509140843.asp |date=2009-01-09 }}.</ref>

===Timur and the Rise of New Powers===
Iran remained divided until the arrival of [[Timur]], a [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]]<ref>Peter B. Golden ''Central Asia in World History (New Oxford World History)'' (Oxford University Press, 2011), page 94: "He was born some 100 km (62 miles) south of Samarkand into a clan of the Barlas, a Turkicized tribe of Mongol descent."</ref> belonging to the [[Timurid dynasty]]. Like its predecessors, the [[Timurid Empire]] was also part of the Persianate world. After establishing a power base in Transoxiana, Timur invaded Iran in 1381 and eventually conquered most of it. Timur's campaigns were known for their brutality; many people were slaughtered and several cities were destroyed.<ref name="lcweb2.loc.gov">This section incorporates text from the public domain [[Library of Congress Country Studies]].<br />{{Citation
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080917085548/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ir0018)
| title= Iran: a country study
| chapter =Invasions of the Mongols and Tamerlane 
| series= Library of Congress Country Studies 
|archive-date=17 September 2008
| year = 1989
| first = Helen | last = Chapin Metz
| url = https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/ir/irancountrystudy00curt_0/irancountrystudy00curt_0_djvu.txt
| url-status= unfit 
}}</ref>
 
His successors, the Timurids, maintained a hold on most of Iran until 1452, when they lost the bulk of it to [[Black Sheep Turkmen]]. The Black Sheep Turkmen were conquered by the [[White Sheep Turkmen]] under [[Uzun Hasan]] in 1468; Uzun Hasan and his successors were the masters of Iran until the rise of the Safavids.<ref name="lcweb2.loc.gov"/>

=== Early modern period ===
{{Main|Safavid Empire|Afsharid Iran|Zand dynasty|Qajar dynasty}}
[[File:Safavid Empire 1501 1722 AD.png|thumb|350px|The [[Safavid Empire]] (1501–1736) at its greatest extent]]

The Safavid dynasty was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran, and "is often considered the beginning of modern Persian history".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | first = Rudi
| last= Mathee
| year = 2008
| title= Safavid Dynasty
| encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Iranica | url= http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids | access-date= 2014-06-02 | archive-date= 2019-05-24 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190524085947/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids | url-status= live }}</ref> They ruled one of the greatest Iranian empires after the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]]<ref>{{ cite book
| editor-link= Helen Chapin Metz
|editor-last= Chapin Metz| editor-first = Helen
| title=Iran, a Country study | year=1989
| publisher= University of Michigan | page = 313}}{{pb}}{{ cite book 
| first = Emory C. | last =Bogle
| title=Islam: Origin and Belief
| publisher=University of Texas Press
| year=1989 | page =145}}{{pb}}{{cite book
| first = Stanford Jay | last=Shaw
| title=History of the Ottoman Empire
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| year=1977 | page= 77}}{{pb}}Andrew J. Newman, Safavid Iran: ''Rebirth of a Persian Empire'', I.B. Tauris (30 March 2006).</ref> and established the [[Twelver]] school of [[Imamate (Twelver doctrine)|Shi'a Islam]] as the [[official religion]] of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in [[Muslim history]]. The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736) and at their height, they controlled all of modern Iran, [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Armenia]], most of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], the [[North Caucasus]], [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]] and [[Afghanistan]], as well as parts of [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], [[Pakistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]. Safavid Iran was one of the Islamic "[[Gunpowder Empires|gunpowder empires]]", along with its neighbours, its archrival and principal enemy the [[Ottoman Empire]], and to the east, the [[Mughal Empire]].

The Safavid state was one of checks and balance, both within the government and on a local level. At the apex of this system was the Shah, with total power over the state, legitimized by his bloodline as a [[sayyid]], or descendant of [[Muhammad]]. So absolute was his power, that the French merchant, and later ambassador to Iran, [[Jean Chardin]] thought the Safavid Shahs ruled their land with an iron fist and often in a despotic manner.<ref>Ferrier, R. W.; A Journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire; pp. 71–71.</ref> 

[[File:Afsharid Iran 1741.png|thumb|left|The Afsharid Empire at its greatest extent in 1741–1745 under [[Nader Shah]]]]

===Collapse of the Safavid Empire and Successor Dynasties===
Complex rivalries in the region of [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] led to the Afghan [[Hotak dynasty]] invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after the [[siege of Isfahan]].{{Sfn|Matthee|2008}}{{Sfn|Aghaie|2012|p=306}} The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of the [[Qajar dynasty]] in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rival [[Afsharid Iran|Afsharid]] and [[Zand dynasty|Zand]] dynasties were established by [[Nader Shah]] (1736–1747) and [[Karim Khan Zand|Karim Khan]] (1751–1779), respectively.{{Sfn|Aghaie|2012|p=306}}

===Nader Shah and the Shifting Balance of Power===
Nader Shah has been described as "the last great Asiatic military conqueror".<ref>''Cambridge History of Iran'' Vol. 7, p. 59.</ref> Some historians have described him as the ''[[Napoleon]] of Persia'', the ''Sword of Persia'',<ref>Axworthy, p. xvii</ref> or the ''Second [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]''. His numerous campaigns created a great empire that, at its maximum extent, briefly encompassed all or part of modern-day Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Georgia, India, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Oman, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, the [[North Caucasus]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], but his military spending had a ruinous effect on the Iranian economy.{{sfn|Tucker|2006a}}

[[File:Map Iran 1900-en.png|thumb|left|A map of Iran under the [[Qajar dynasty]] in the 19th century.]]

Nader Shah's death was followed by a [[Division of the Afsharid Empire|period of anarchy in Iran as rival army commanders fought for power]]. Nader's own family, the Afsharids, were soon reduced to holding on to a small domain in Khorasan. The [[Zand dynasty|Zand]] family seized control of much of Iran in the 1750s.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}} Established by the tribal leader Karim Khan Zand, the Zand rulers never proclaimed themselves to be ''shah''s.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}}''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}'' Instead, they presented themselves as regents of Iran, at first on behalf of the Safavid puppet [[Ismail III]] (1750–1773) and then on behalf of the Iranian people.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}}''{{Sfn|Perry|2000}}''

===Rise of the Qajar Dynasty and Foreign Interference===
The Qajar dynasty originated as a local [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]]{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} noble family in northern Iran, under the Safavids.{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}} The Qajars gradually increased in power as other families fought each other in Iran, culminating in [[Agha Mohammad Shah]] proclaiming himself ruler in 1789, in opposition to the Afsharids and Zands.{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794{{Sfn|Baker|2005|p=13}} and was officially crowned in 1796.{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}} Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler.{{sfn|Perry|1984|pp=602–605}}

In the 19th century, Iran lost significant territories in the [[Caucasus]] to the [[Russian Empire]] following the [[Russo-Persian Wars]].<ref name="books.google.nl1">{{Cite book |last=Dowling |first=Timothy C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728 |title=Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond |year=2014 |pages=728–729 |series=2 volumes |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-948-6 |language=en}}</ref> At the same time, [[United Kingdom|Britain]] became increasingly involved in [[southern Iran]], wishing to provide a counterweight to Russia's presence in the north, which posed a threat to [[British India]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=GREAT BRITAIN iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/great-britain-iii/ |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |language=en-US}}</ref> This was solidified by the establishment of the Indo-European Telegraph Department in the 1860s; and the [[Imperial Bank of Persia]] by an English company in 1889.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lapping |first=Brian |url=https://archive.org/details/endofempire00lapp |title=End of empire |date=1985 |publisher=New York : St. Martin's Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-312-25071-3}}</ref> By the end of the 19th century, this dominance had become so pronounced that Iran's central government in Tehran required Anglo-Russian approval for ministerial appointments.<ref name=":4" />

=== 20th Century ===
{{Main|Pahlavi Iran|Iranian Revolution|History of the Islamic Republic of Iran}}
[[File:RezaShahBozorgTakhteJamshid32.jpg|thumb|Reza Shah at [[Persepolis]]]]
=== Constitutional Revolution and the Rise of the Pahlavi Dynasty ===
The [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] between 1905 and 1911 led to the establishment of an Iranian parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/constitutional-revolution-index/ |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |language=en-US}}</ref> After the [[1921 Persian coup d'état|1921 coup d'état]], the Qajar dynasty was replaced with the [[Pahlavi dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pahlavi Dynasty {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/pahlavi-dynasty |access-date=2025-05-07 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

[[Reza Shah]] ruled for almost 16 years until 16 September 1941, when he was forced to [[Abdication|abdicate]] by the [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]]. He established an [[authoritarianism|authoritarian government]] that valued [[Iranian nationalism|nationalism]], [[militarism]], [[secularism in Iran|secularism]] and [[anti-communism]] combined with strict [[censorship]] and [[state propaganda]].<ref>Michael P. Zirinsky; "Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926", International Journal of Middle East Studies 24 (1992), 639–663, Cambridge University Press</ref> Reza Shah introduced many socio-economic reforms, reorganizing the army, government administration, and finances.<ref name="Columbia_Encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090201151652/http://www.bartleby.com/65/re/RezaShah.html
| url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/re/RezaShah.html
| url-status= usurped
| archive-date= 1 February 2009
| encyclopedia= The Columbia Encyclopedia
| edition= Sixth
| orig-date= 2001 | year = 2007
| title= Reza Shah Pahlevi
}}</ref>

To his supporters, his reign brought "law and order, discipline, central authority, and modern amenities – schools, trains, buses, radios, cinemas, and telephones".<ref name="Ervand, 2008 p.91">Ervand, ''History of Modern Iran'', (2008), p.91</ref> However, his attempts of modernisation have been criticised for being "too fast"<ref>The Origins of the Iranian Revolution by Roger Homan. International Affairs, Vol. 56, No. 4 (Autumn, 1980), pp. 673–677.{{JSTOR|2618173}}</ref> and "superficial",<ref>Richard W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, University of Pittsburgh Press, ISBN o-8229-3396-7</ref> and his reign a time of "oppression, corruption, taxation, lack of authenticity" with "security typical of [[police state]]s."<ref name="Ervand, 2008 p.91"/>

=== World War II and Post-Occupation Instability ===
While [[Operation Barbarossa|German armies were highly successful]] against the [[Soviet Union in World War II|Soviet Union]], the Iranian government expected Germany to win the war and establish a powerful force on its borders. It rejected British and Soviet demands to expel German residents from Iran. In response, the two [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|invaded in August 1941]] and easily overwhelmed the weak Iranian army in ''[[Operation Countenance]]''. Iran became the major conduit of Allied [[Lend-Lease]] aid to the Soviet Union. The purpose was to secure Iranian [[oil field]]s and ensure Allied [[supply line]]s (see ''[[Persian Corridor]]''). Iran remained officially neutral. Rezā Shāh was deposed during the subsequent occupation and replaced with his young son [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]].<ref>Richard Stewart, ''Sunrise at Abadan: the British and Soviet invasion of Iran, 1941'' (1988).</ref>

Initially, there were hopes that post-occupation Iran could become a [[constitutional monarchy]]. The new, young Shah took a very hands-off role in government, and allowed parliament to hold a lot of power. Some elections were held in the first shaky years, although they remained mired in corruption. Parliament became chronically unstable, and from the 1947 to 1951 period Iran saw the rise and fall of six different prime ministers.

=== Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup ===
In 1951, Prime Minister [[Mohammed Mosaddeq]] received the vote required from the parliament to [[nationalize]] the British-owned oil industry, in a situation known as the [[Abadan Crisis]]. Despite British pressure, including an economic blockade, the nationalization continued. Mosaddeq was briefly removed from power in 1952 but was quickly re-appointed by the Shah, due to a popular uprising in support of the premier, and he, in turn, forced the Shah into a brief exile in August 1953 after a failed military coup by [[Imperial Guard (Iran)|Imperial Guard]] Colonel [[Nematollah Nassiri]]. 

Shortly thereafter on 19 August a successful [[Coup d'état|coup]] was headed by retired army general [[Fazlollah Zahedi]], aided by the United States ([[CIA]])<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|title=CIA documents acknowledge its role in Iran's 1953 coup|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23762970|work=BBC News|access-date=20 August 2013|archive-date=9 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309131918/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-23762970|url-status=live}}</ref> with the active support of the British ([[MI6]]) (known as [[1953 Iranian coup d'état|Operation Ajax and Operation Boot]] to the respective agencies).<ref>{{cite book|last=Kinzer|first=Stephen|title=The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War|publisher=Times Books|location=New York|year=2013}}</ref> The coup—with a [[black propaganda]] campaign designed to turn the population against Mosaddeq<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gölz|first=Olmo|date=2019-01-01|title=Gölz "The Dangerous Classes and the 1953 Coup in Iran: On the Decline of 'lutigari' Masculinities." In Crime, Poverty and Survival in the Middle East and North Africa: The 'Dangerous Classes' since 1800. Edited by Stephanie Cronin, 177–90. London: I.B. Tauris, 2019.|url=https://www.academia.edu/40997855|journal=Crime, Poverty and Survival in the Middle East and North Africa}}</ref> — forced Mosaddeq from office. Mosaddeq was arrested and tried for treason. Found guilty, his sentence was reduced to house arrest on his family estate while his foreign minister, [[Hossein Fatemi]], was executed. [[Fazlollah Zahedi|Zahedi]] succeeded him as prime minister, and suppressed opposition to the Shah, specifically the [[National Front (Iran)|National Front]] and Communist [[Tudeh Party]].

[[File:Imam Khomeini in Mehrabad.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Ayatollah [[Khomeini]] returns to Iran after 14 years exile in France on 1 February 1979.]]

=== The Shah’s Rule and the Islamic Revolution ===
Iran was ruled as an autocracy under the Shah with American support from that time until the revolution. Iran initiated a series of economic, social, agrarian and administrative reforms to modernize the country that became known as the Shah's [[White Revolution]].

The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution,<ref name = "Chamber">{{Cite web|title=History of Iran: Islamic Revolution of 1979|url=https://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_revolution/islamic_revolution.php|access-date=2023-03-16|website=www.iranchamber.com}}</ref> was the revolution that transformed Iran from an absolute monarchy to an [[Islamic republic]] under [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], one of the leaders of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic.<ref>{{Cite web
|year=2018|orig-date=1998|title=The Iranian Revolution|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir.html|access-date=2023-03-16|last = Smitha | first = Frank E.
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010233759/http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir.html |archive-date=2016-10-10
}}</ref> and concluded with the approval of the new [[theocratic]] Constitution—whereby Ayatollah Khomeini became [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]] of the country—in December 1979.<ref name="Britannica Khomeini">{{Cite encyclopaedia
| url = https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ruhollah-Khomeini
| title= Ruhollah Khomeini
| encyclopedia= Britannica
| last = Afari | first = Janet
| date= 19 May 2023
| access-date= 2023-05-21
}}</ref> Iran's rapidly modernising, capitalist economy was replaced by populist and Islamic economic and cultural policies. Much industry was [[nationalized]], laws and schools Islamicized, and Western influences banned.

[[File:Chemical weapon1.jpg|thumb|An Iranian soldier with gas mask during the Iran–Iraq War]]

=== War and Leadership Transition ===
Khomeini served as leader of the revolution or as [[Supreme Leader of Iran]] from 1979 to his death on 3 June 1989. An early event in the history of the Islamic republic that had a long-term impact was the [[Iran hostage crisis]]. Following the admission of the former Shah of Iran into the United States for cancer treatment, on 4 November 1979, Iranian students [[Iran hostage crisis|seized US embassy personnel]], labeling the embassy a "den of spies."<ref name="carterpbs">[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carter/sfeature/sf_hostage.html PBS, American Experience, Jimmy Carter, "444 Days: America Reacts"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119224031/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carter/sfeature/sf_hostage.html |date=2011-01-19 }}, retrieved 1 October 2007</ref> Fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days until January 1981.<ref>Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 127, 200</ref> 

During this political and social crisis, Iraqi leader [[Saddam Hussein]] attempted to take advantage of the disorder of the Revolution, the weakness of the Iranian military and the revolution's antagonism with Western governments. On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the [[Iran–Iraq War]]. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.

Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, Iranian forces had pushed the Iraqi army back into Iraq by 1982. Khomeini sought to [[export of revolution|export his Islamic revolution]] westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.

On his deathbed in 1989, [[Khomeini]] appointed a 25-man Constitutional Reform Council which named then president [[Ali Khamenei]] as the next Supreme Leader, and made a number of changes to Iran's constitution.<ref>Abrahamian, ''History of Modern Iran'', (2008), p.182</ref> A smooth transition followed Khomeini's death on 3 June 1989. While Khamenei lacked Khomeini's "charisma and clerical standing", he developed a network of supporters within Iran's armed forces and its economically powerful [[Bonyad|religious foundations]].<ref name="ReferenceA">"Who's in Charge?" by Ervand Abrahamian ''London Review of Books'', 6 November 2008</ref>

=== Since the 1990s ===
{{Main|Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action|Operation Martyr Soleimani|April 2024 Iranian strikes against Israel|October 2024 Iranian strikes against Israel|l1 = ||}}
[[File:Khamenei meets with members of parliament 2022 D.jpeg|thumb|Khamenei in 2022]]

In 1989, President [[Akbar Rafsanjani]] concentrated on a pro-business policy of rebuilding the economy without breaking with the ideology of the revolution. He supported a [[free market]] domestically, favouring [[privatization|privatisation]] of state industries and a moderate position internationally. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate [[Iranian reform movement|reformist]] [[Mohammad Khatami]], whose government advocated [[Freedom of speech|freedom of expression]], constructive diplomatic relations with Asia and the [[European Union]], and an economic policy that supported a free market and foreign investment.

The [[2005 Iranian presidential election|2005 presidential election]] brought conservative [[populist]] and nationalist candidate [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] to power. He was known for his hardline views, nuclearisation, and hostility towards [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Israel|Israel]], [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the US and other states. He was the first president to be summoned by the [[Islamic Consultative Assembly|parliament]] to answer questions regarding his presidency.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 June 2012 |title=Ahmadinejad critic Larijani re-elected Iran speaker |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18328882 |access-date=10 May 2024 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB |archive-date=10 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510171821/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18328882 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2013, centrist and reformist [[Hassan Rouhani]] was elected president. In domestic policy, he encouraged personal freedom, free access to information, and improved women's rights. He improved Iran's diplomatic relations through exchanging conciliatory letters.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Borger |first1=Julian |last2=Dehghan |first2=Saeed Kamali |date=19 September 2013 |title=Hassan Rouhani sets out his vision for a new and free Iran |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/19/hassan-rouhani-vision-iran-free |access-date=10 May 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=12 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231112101132/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/19/hassan-rouhani-vision-iran-free |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action]] (JCPOA) was reached in [[Vienna]] in 2015, between Iran, the [[P5+1]] ([[permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] + Germany) and the EU. The negotiations centred around ending the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1929|economic sanctions]] in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing [[enriched uranium]].<ref name=":2">{{cite web |author=Kutsch, Tom |date=14 July 2015 |title=Iran, world powers strike historic nuclear deal |url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/7/14/iran-world-powers-strike-historic-nuclear-deal.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715175516/http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/7/14/iran-world-powers-strike-historic-nuclear-deal.html |archive-date=15 July 2015 |access-date=15 July 2015 |publisher=Aljazeera America}}</ref> In 2018, however, the US under [[First presidency of Donald Trump|Trump Administration]] withdrew from the deal and new sanctions were imposed. This nulled the economic provisions, left the agreement in jeopardy, and brought Iran to [[nuclear latency|nuclear threshold status]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brewer |first=Eric |date=2024-06-25 |title=Iran's New Nuclear Threat |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/iran/irans-new-nuclear-threat |access-date=2024-07-02 |work=Foreign Affairs |language=en-US |issn=0015-7120}}</ref> In 2020, [[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps|IRGC]] general, [[Qasem Soleimani]], the 2nd-most powerful person in Iran,<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 January 2020 |title=U.S. killing of Iran's second most powerful man risks regional conflagration |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-security-blast-soleimani-analysi/u-s-killing-of-irans-second-most-powerful-man-risks-regional-conflagration-idUSKBN1Z21TJ/ |website=Reuters |access-date=7 May 2024 |archive-date=18 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418120615/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-security-blast-soleimani-analysi/u-s-killing-of-irans-second-most-powerful-man-risks-regional-conflagration-idUSKBN1Z21TJ/ |url-status=live}}</ref> was [[Assassination of Qasem Soleimani|assassinated by the US]], heightening [[Iran–United States relations|tensions between them]].<ref name="Roelants">Carolien Roelants, Iran expert of ''[[NRC Handelsblad]]'', in a debate on ''[[Buitenhof (TV series)|Buitenhof]]'' on Dutch television, 5 January 2020.</ref> [[Operation Martyr Soleimani|Iran retaliated against US airbases in Iraq]], the largest ballistic missile attack ever on Americans;<ref>{{Citation |title=Never-before-seen video of the attack on Al Asad Airbase |date=28 February 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGP7hZQuTL0 |access-date=8 January 2024 |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223104408/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGP7hZQuTL0 |url-status=live}}</ref> 110 sustained [[Traumatic brain injury|brain injuries]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=109 US troops diagnosed with brain injuries from Iran attack |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/2/10/109-us-troops-diagnosed-with-brain-injuries-from-iran-attack |access-date=7 April 2024 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=7 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407113740/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/2/10/109-us-troops-diagnosed-with-brain-injuries-from-iran-attack |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pentagon admits 109 brain injuries in Iran attack – DW – 02/10/2020 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/109-us-service-members-were-injured-in-the-iran-missile-attack/a-52331039 |access-date=7 April 2024 |website=dw.com |language=en |archive-date=7 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407113741/https://www.dw.com/en/109-us-service-members-were-injured-in-the-iran-missile-attack/a-52331039 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Starr |first=Barbara |date=10 February 2020 |title=Over 100 US troops have been diagnosed with traumatic brain injuries following Iran strike {{!}} CNN Politics |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/10/politics/traumatic-brain-injuries-iran-strike/index.html |access-date=7 April 2024 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=7 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240407113740/https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/10/politics/traumatic-brain-injuries-iran-strike/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Hardliner [[Ebrahim Raisi]] ran for president again in [[2021 Iranian presidential election|2021]], succeeding [[Hassan Rouhani]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Motamedi |first1=Maziar |title=Hardliner Raisi elected Iran's new president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/19/raisi-wins-irans-presidential-election-amid-low-turnout |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> During Raisi's term, Iran [[Nuclear program of Iran|intensified uranium enrichment]], hindered international inspections, joined SCO and BRICS, [[Iran and the Russian invasion of Ukraine|supported Russia]] in its [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine]] and restored diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia. In April 2024, [[Israeli bombing of the Iranian embassy in Damascus|Israel's airstrike]] on an Iranian [[consulate]], killed an IRGC commander.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Several killed in Israeli strike on Iranian consulate in Damascus |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/1/several-killed-in-israeli-strike-on-iranian-consulate-in-damascus-reports |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=30 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240430180537/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/1/several-killed-in-israeli-strike-on-iranian-consulate-in-damascus-reports |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2024 |title=Israeli strike on Iran's consulate in Syria killed 2 generals and 5 other officers, Iran says |url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-syria-airstrike-iranian-embassy-edca34c52d38c8bc57281e4ebf33b240 |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=19 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419075609/https://apnews.com/article/israel-syria-airstrike-iranian-embassy-edca34c52d38c8bc57281e4ebf33b240 |url-status=live}}</ref> Iran [[April 2024 Iranian strikes against Israel|retaliated]] with [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAVs]], [[Cruise missile|cruise]] and [[ballistic missile]]s; 9 hit Israel.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=center |first1=This aerial view shows Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion International Airport in the |last2=April 5 |first2=the surrounding urban areas in Lodin central Israel on |last3=Images |first3=2024-ROY ISSA/AFP via Getty |date=15 April 2024 |title=How Iran's attack on Israel is disrupting air traffic – Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/04/how-irans-attack-israel-disrupting-air-traffic |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=www.al-monitor.com |language=en |archive-date=1 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501174027/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/04/how-irans-attack-israel-disrupting-air-traffic |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Toossi |first=Sina |date=2 May 2024 |title=Iran Has Defined Its Red Line With Israel |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/04/18/iran-has-defined-its-red-line-with-israel/ |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US |archive-date=1 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501174027/https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/04/18/iran-has-defined-its-red-line-with-israel/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 April 2024 |title=What was in wave of Iranian attacks and how were they thwarted? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68811273 |access-date=1 May 2024 |language=en-GB |archive-date=14 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414091527/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68811273 |url-status=live}}</ref> Western and Jordanian military helped Israel down some Iranian drones.<ref name="Borger">{{Cite news |last=Borger |first=Julian |date=14 April 2024 |title=US and UK forces help shoot down Iranian drones over Jordan, Syria and Iraq |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/14/us-and-uk-forces-help-shoot-down-iranian-drones-over-jordan-syria-and-iraq |access-date=1 May 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=14 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414002629/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/14/us-and-uk-forces-help-shoot-down-iranian-drones-over-jordan-syria-and-iraq |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 April 2024 |title=Macron: France intercepted Iranian drones 'at Jordan's request' |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/france-intercepted-iranian-drones-at-jordans-request-emmanuel-macron/ |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=POLITICO |language=en-GB |archive-date=15 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240415095405/https://www.politico.eu/article/france-intercepted-iranian-drones-at-jordans-request-emmanuel-macron/ |url-status=live}}</ref> It was the largest drone strike in history,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The largest drone attack in history |url=http://iranpress.com/aliaspage/277652 |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=iranpress.com |language=en}}</ref> biggest missile attack in Iranian history,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Motamedi |first=Maziar |title='True Promise': Why and how did Iran launch a historic attack on Israel? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/14/true-promise-why-and-how-did-iran-launch-a-historic-attack-on-israel |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=14 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414145020/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/4/14/true-promise-why-and-how-did-iran-launch-a-historic-attack-on-israel |url-status=live}}</ref> its first ever direct attack on Israel<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 April 2024 |title=Iran launches first-ever direct attack on Israel |url=https://abc7ny.com/israel-gaza-live-updates-iran-launches-dozens-of-drones-in-retaliatory-strike/14656640/ |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=ABC7 New York |language=en |archive-date=1 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501174027/https://abc7ny.com/israel-gaza-live-updates-iran-launches-dozens-of-drones-in-retaliatory-strike/14656640/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 April 2024 |title=How Israel could respond to Iran's drone and missile assault |url=https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20240418-how-israel-could-respond-to-iran-s-drone-and-missile-assault |access-date=1 May 2024 |website=France 24 |language=en |archive-date=1 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240501174029/https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20240418-how-israel-could-respond-to-iran-s-drone-and-missile-assault |url-status=live}}</ref> and the first time [[1991 Iraqi missile attacks against Israel|since 1991]], Israel was directly attacked by a state force.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Johny |first=Stanly |date=14 April 2024 |title=Analysis {{!}} By attacking Israel, Iran turns shadow war into direct conflict |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/analysis-three-takeaways-from-irans-attack-on-israel/article68064678.ece |access-date=1 May 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=14 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414203401/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/analysis-three-takeaways-from-irans-attack-on-israel/article68064678.ece |url-status=live}}</ref> This occurred during heightened tensions amid the [[Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip]]. In May 2024, President Raisi was killed in a [[2024 Varzaqan helicopter crash|helicopter crash]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Staff |first1=Al Jazeera |title=Who died alongside Iran's President Raisi in the helicopter crash? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/5/20/who-died-alongside-irans-president-raisi-in-the-helicopter-crash |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> and Iran held a [[2024 Iranian presidential election|presidential election]] in June, when reformist and former [[Ministry of Health and Medical Education|Minister of Health]], [[Masoud Pezeshkian]], was elected to office.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-06 |title=Masoud Pezeshkian, a heart surgeon who rose to power in parliament, now Iran's president-elect |url=https://apnews.com/article/iran-presidential-runoff-election-masoud-pezeshkian-profile-a07e9921fa8c25b1a05333e128c03916 |access-date=2024-07-06 |website=[[AP News]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Fassihi |first1=Farnaz |last2=Vinograd |first2=Cassandra |date=2024-07-06 |title=Reformist Candidate Wins Iran's Presidential Election |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/05/world/middleeast/iran-election-reformist-wins.html |access-date=2024-07-06 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> On 1 October 2024, Iran launched about 180 ballistic missiles at Israel in retaliation for assassinations of [[Ismail Haniyeh]], [[Hassan Nasrallah]] and [[Abbas Nilforoushan]]. On 27 October, Israel responded to that attack by strikes on a missile defence system in the Iranian region of Isfahan.<ref>{{cite news |title=What we know about Israel's attack on Iran |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cgr0yvrx4qpo |work=www.bbc.com}}</ref>