Editing International relations (section)

==History of international relations==
{{See also|International relations (1648–1814)|International relations (1814–1919)|Diplomatic history of World War I|International relations (1919–1939)|Diplomatic history of World War II|Cold War|International relations since 1989}}
[[File:French Spanish and Polish fashion.jpg|thumb|The official portraits of King [[Władysław IV Vasa|Władysław IV]] dressed according to [[Kingdom of France|French]], [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]], and Polish fashion reflects the complex politics of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]]]]
Studies of international relations started thousands of years ago; [[Barry Buzan]] and Richard Little considered the interaction of ancient [[Sumer]]ian city-states, starting in 3,500 [[Anno Domini|BC]], as the first fully-fledged international system.<ref>Barry Buzan, Richard Little. ''International Systems in World History: Remaking the Study of International Relations'' (2000).</ref> Analyses of the foreign policies of sovereign city states have been done in ancient times, as in [[Thucydides|Thucydides]]' analysis of the causes of the [[Peloponnesian War]] between [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and [[Sparta]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The History of the Peloponnesian War |orig-date= 431 BC |date=March 15, 2003 |translator-first1=Richard |translator-last1=Crawley |author= Thucydides |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7142/7142-h/7142-h.htm |access-date=2021-04-10|via=Project Gutenberg }}</ref> as well as by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] in ''[[The Prince]],'' published in 1532, where he analyzed the foreign policy of the renaissance city state of [[Florence]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Nederman|first=Cary|title=Niccolò Machiavelli |date=2019 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/machiavelli/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2019|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2021-04-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240319191634/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/machiavelli/ |archive-date= 19 March 2024  }}</ref> The contemporary field of international relations, however, analyzes the connections existing between [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] [[nation-state]]s. This makes the establishment of the [[Westphalian sovereignty|modern state system]] the natural starting point of international relations history.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

The establishment of modern sovereign states as fundamental political units traces back to the [[Peace of Westphalia]] of 1648 in [[Europe]]. During the preceding [[Middle Ages]], European organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty, especially within the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref>Stéphane Beaulac: "[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AJLH/2004/9.html The Westphalian Model in defining International Law: Challenging the Myth]", ''Australian Journal of Legal History'' Vol. 9 (2004); Krasner, Stephen D.: "Westphalia and all that" in Judith Goldstein & Robert Keohane (eds): ''Ideas and Foreign Policy'' (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1993), pp.235–264.</ref> More than the Peace of Westphalia, the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] of 1713 is thought to reflect an emerging norm that sovereigns had no internal equals within a defined territory and no external superiors as the ultimate authority within the territory's sovereign borders. These principles underpin the modern international legal and political order.

The period between roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of independent [[sovereign state]]s, [[multilateralism]], and the institutionalization of [[diplomacy]] and the military. The [[French Revolution]] contributed the idea that it was the citizenry of a state, defined as the nation, that were sovereign, rather than a monarch or noble class. A state wherein the [[nation]] is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state, as opposed to a monarchy or a religious state; the term [[republic]] increasingly became its synonym. An alternative model of the nation-state was developed in reaction to the French republican concept by the Germans and others, who instead of giving the citizenry sovereignty, kept the princes and nobility, but defined nation-statehood in ethnic-linguistic terms, establishing the rarely if ever fulfilled ideal that all people speaking one language should belong to one state only. The same claim to sovereignty was made for both forms of nation-state. In Europe today, few states conform to either definition of nation-state: many continue to have royal sovereigns, and hardly any are ethnically homogeneous.

The particular European system supposing the sovereign equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via [[colonialism]] and the "standards of civilization". The contemporary international system was finally established through [[decolonization]] during the [[Cold War]]. However, this is somewhat over-simplified. While the nation-state system is considered "modern", many states have not incorporated the system and are termed "pre-modern".

A handful of states have moved beyond insistence on full sovereignty, and can be considered "post-modern". The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of these different types of states is disputed. "Levels of analysis" is a way of looking at the international system, which includes the individual level, the domestic state as a unit, the international level of transnational and intergovernmental affairs, and the global level.

What is explicitly recognized as international relations theory was not developed until after [[World War I]], and is dealt with in more detail below. IR theory, however, has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other [[social science]]s. The use of capitalizations of the "I" and "R" in international relations aims to distinguish the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of international relations. Many cite [[Sun Tzu]]'s ''[[The Art of War]]'' (6th century BC), [[Thucydides]]' ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'' (5th century BC), [[Chanakya]]'s ''[[Arthashastra]]'' (4th century BC), as the inspiration for realist theory, with [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]]' ''[[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]]'' and [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]'' providing further elaboration.

Similarly, [[liberal international relations theory|liberalism]] draws upon the work of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] and [[Jean Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], with the work of the former often being cited as the first elaboration of [[democratic peace theory]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Gaus |first1=Gerald|last2=Courtland|first2=Shane D.|last3=Schmidtz|first3=David  |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |title=Liberalism |edition=(September–December) Fall 2020 |editor-last1=Zalta| editor-first1=Edward N. |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/liberalism/|publisher=Stanford Press|date=22 January 2018 |orig-date=First published November 1996; substantive revision 2018 |access-date=5 March 2014}}</ref> Though contemporary human rights is considerably different from the type of rights envisioned under [[natural law]], [[Francisco de Vitoria]], [[Hugo Grotius]], and [[John Locke]] offered the first accounts of universal entitlement to certain rights on the basis of common humanity. In the 20th century, in addition to contemporary theories of [[liberal internationalism]], [[Marxism]] has been a foundation of international relations.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

===Emergence as academic discipline===
International relations as a distinct field of study began in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. IR emerged as a formal [[academic discipline]] in 1919 with the founding of the first IR professorship: the Woodrow Wilson Chair at [[Aberystwyth]], [[University of Wales]] (now [[Aberystwyth University]]),<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Aberystwyth University – Department of International Politics|url=http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/interpol/|website=www.aber.ac.uk}}</ref> held by [[Alfred Eckhard Zimmern]]<ref name="AAA">{{Cite journal|last=Abadía|first=Adolfo A.|date=2015|title=Del liberalismo al neo-realismo. Un debate en torno al realismo clásico|trans-title=From Liberalism to Neorealism. A Discussion Around Classical Realism|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278025848|journal=Telos. Revista de Estudios Interdisciplinarios en Ciencias Sociales|language=es|volume=17|issue=3|pages=438–459|doi=10.36390/telos173.05 |issn=1317-0570|ssrn=2810410|s2cid=147564996 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and endowed by [[David Davies, 1st Baron Davies|David Davies]]. International politics courses were established at the University of Wisconsin in 1899 by [[Paul Samuel Reinsch]] and at Columbia University in 1910.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Potter|first=Pitman B.|date=1923|title=Political Science in the International Field|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400107531/type/journal_article|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=17|issue=3|pages=381–391|doi=10.2307/1944041|jstor=1944041|s2cid=153640855 |issn=0003-0554}}</ref> By 1920, there were four universities that taught courses on [[international organization]].<ref name=":3"/>

[[Georgetown University]]'s [[Walsh School of Foreign Service]] is the oldest continuously operating school for international affairs in the United States, founded in 1919.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oren|first=Ido|date=2020-12-14|title=Schools of international affairs in the United States: a historical sketch|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2020.1855630|journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs|volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=328–351|doi=10.1080/09557571.2020.1855630|issn=0955-7571|s2cid=230562181}}</ref> In 1927, the [[London School of Economics]]' department of international relations was founded at the behest of [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner [[Philip Noel-Baker]]: this was the first institute to offer a wide range of degrees in the field. That same year, the [[Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies]], a school dedicated to teaching international affairs, was founded in [[Geneva]], Switzerland. This was rapidly followed by establishment of IR at universities in the US. The creation of the posts of [[Montague Burton Professor of International Relations]] at LSE and at Oxford gave further impetus to the academic study of international relations. Furthermore, the International History department at LSE developed a focus on the history of IR in the [[Early modern period|early modern]], [[History of colonialism|colonial]], and [[Cold War]] periods.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0uVHo4ZLc4C&pg=PA5|title=Handbook of International Relations|publisher=SAGE Publications|year=2012|isbn=9781446265031|editor-last=Carlsnaes|editor-first=Walter|pages=1–28|access-date=2016-02-24|display-editors=etal}}</ref>

The first university entirely dedicated to the study of IR was the [[Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies]], which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the [[League of Nations]]. In 1922, [[Georgetown University]] graduated its first class of the [[Master of Science in Foreign Service]] (MSFS) degree, making it the first international relations graduate program in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Master of Science in Foreign Service / Master of Public Policy (MSFS/MPP) |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/georgetown-university/postgrad/master-science-foreign-service-master-public-policy-msfs-mpp |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Quacquarelli Symonds}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=First master's degrees are granted. |url=https://sfs.georgetown.edu/timeline/first-masters-degrees-are-granted/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=SFS - School of Foreign Service - Georgetown University |language=en-US}}</ref> This was soon followed by the establishment of the [[Committee on International Relations (University of Chicago)|Committee on International Relations]] (CIR) at the [[University of Chicago]], where the first research [[Postgraduate education|graduate degree]] was conferred in 1928.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the Committee on International Relations |url=https://cir.uchicago.edu/content/about |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=The University of Chicago}}</ref> The [[Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]], a collaboration between [[Tufts University]] and [[Harvard University]], opened its doors in 1933 as the first [[Postgraduate education|graduate-only school]] of international affairs in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=A History of Excellence|url=http://fletcher.tufts.edu/About/Fletcher-History|website=The Fletcher School|publisher=Tufts|access-date=2018-01-31|archive-date=2018-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119045846/http://fletcher.tufts.edu/About/Fletcher-History|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1965, [[Glendon College]] and the [[Norman Paterson School of International Affairs]] were the first institutions in Canada to offer an undergraduate and a graduate program in international studies and affairs, respectively.

The lines between IR and other political science subfields is sometimes blurred, in particular when it comes to the study of [[Conflict (process)|conflict]], [[Institution|institutions]], [[political economy]] and [[Theories of political behavior|political behavior]].<ref name=":2" /> The division between [[comparative politics]] and international relations is artificial, as processes within nations shape international processes, and international processes shape processes within states.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kopstein|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDP8RVXvlUMC|title=Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order|last2=Lichbach|first2=Mark|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44604-4|pages=3|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hurrell |first1=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Hurrell |last2=Menon |first2=Anand |date=1996 |title=Politics like any other? Comparative politics, international relations and the study of the EU |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01402389608425139 |journal=West European Politics |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=386–402 |doi=10.1080/01402389608425139 |issn=0140-2382}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pollack|first=Mark A.|date=2005|title=Theorizing the European Union: International Organization, Domestic Polity, or Experiment in New Governance?|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=357–398|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.8.082103.104858|issn=1094-2939|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some scholars have called for an integration of the fields.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Milner|first=Helen V.|date=1998|title=Rationalizing Politics: The Emerging Synthesis of International, American, and Comparative Politics|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/abs/rationalizing-politics-the-emerging-synthesis-of-international-american-and-comparative-politics/38BE8BA519640613B88B261C90E857E1|journal=International Organization|language=en|volume=52|issue=4|pages=759–786|doi=10.1162/002081898550743|s2cid=145584969 |issn=1531-5088}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Nadkarni |first1=Vidya |last2=Williams |first2=J. Michael |date=2010 |title=International Relations and Comparative Politics |url=https://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.0001/acrefore-9780190846626-e-408|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.408 |isbn=978-0-19-084662-6}}</ref> Comparative politics does not have similar "[[-ism|isms]]" as international relations scholarship.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Finnemore|first1=Martha|last2=Sikkink|first2=Kathryn|date=2001|title=Taking Stock: The Constructivist Research Program in International Relations and Comparative Politics|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=4|issue=1|pages=391–416|doi=10.1146/annurev.polisci.4.1.391 |s2cid=3640392|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Critical scholarship in international relations has explored the relationship between the [[Institutionalisation|institutionalization]] of IR as an academic discipline and the demands of national governments. {{Ill|Robert Vitalis|ar|بوب_ڤيتاليس}}'s book ''White World Order, Black Power Politics'' details the historical imbrication of IR in the projects of colonial administration and imperialism,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vitalis |first=Robert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/927444487 |title=White World Order, Black Power Politics: The Birth of American International Relations |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-5017-0188-7 |location=Ithaca |oclc=927444487}}</ref> while other scholars have traced the emergence of international relations in relation to the consolidation of newly independent nation-states within the [[Non-Western|non-West]], such as Brazil and India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alejandro |first=Audrey |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1145913401 |title=Western Dominance in International Relations?: The Internationalisation of IR in Brazil and India |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-367-54010-4 |pages=59–65 |oclc=1145913401}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bilgin |first=Pinar |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/953735190 |publisher=Routledge |title=The international in security, security in the international |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-40730-0 |location=New York, NY |oclc=953735190}}</ref>