Editing International Space Station (section)

==Purpose==
The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a [[low Earth orbit]] staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial [[memorandum of understanding]] between [[NASA]] and [[Roscosmos]] have been realised.<ref name="RSA-MOU">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html|title=Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Russian Space Agency Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=19 April 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151215114755/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html|archive-date=15 December 2015}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> In the [[Space policy of the Barack Obama administration|2010 United States National Space Policy]], the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic,<ref name="payette-2012">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2012/research-and-diplomacy-350-kilometers-above-earth|title=Research and Diplomacy 350 Kilometers above the Earth: Lessons from the International Space Station|last=Payette|first=Julie|date=10 December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306143438/https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2012/research-and-diplomacy-350-kilometers-above-earth|archive-date=6 March 2013|issue=4|journal=Science & Diplomacy|volume=1}}</ref> and educational purposes.<ref name="USNSP">{{Cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf|title=National Space Policy of the United States of America|date=28 June 2010|publisher=[[President of the United States|White House]]|access-date=20 July 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027102640/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf|archive-date=27 October 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

===Scientific research===
{{Main|Scientific research on the International Space Station}}
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| caption1          = [[C/2011 W3 (Lovejoy)|Comet Lovejoy]] photographed during [[Expedition 30]]
| image2            = ISS-08 Michael Foale conducts an inspection of the Microgravity Science Glovebox.jpg
| caption2          = [[Michael Foale]] conducts an inspection of the [[Microgravity Science Glovebox]] during [[Expedition 8]].
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| image1            = STS-134 EVA4 view to the Space Shuttle Endeavour.jpg
| caption1          = Fisheye view of several labs and the Space Shuttle
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| caption2          = [[CubeSat]]s are deployed by the [[NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer]].
}}

The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades<!--<ref name="jaxa">{{Cite web|url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/iss/doc01_e.html|title=What is International Space Station?|date=19 January 2004|publisher=iss.jaxa.jp|access-date=27 May 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730041558/https://iss.jaxa.jp/iss/doc01_e.html|archive-date=30 July 2023}}</ref>-->, combined with ready access by human researchers.<ref name="10th">{{Cite press release|url=https://www3.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/nov/HQ_08-296_ISS_10th_Anniversary.html|title=Nations Around the World Mark 10th Anniversary of International Space Station|last1=Trinidad|first1=Katherine|last2=Humphries|first2=Kelly|date=17 November 2008|publisher=[[NASA]]|id=08-296|access-date=6 March 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521030300/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/nov/HQ_08-296_ISS_10th_Anniversary.html|archive-date=21 May 2022}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="Worldbook at NASA" />

The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including [[astrobiology]], [[astronomy]], [[physical science]]s, [[materials science]], [[space weather]], [[meteorology]], and [[Zero g#Health effects of weightlessness|human research]] including [[space medicine]] and the [[life science]]s.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research">{{cite web|date=26 June 2007|title=Fields of Research|url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123150641/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html|archive-date=23 January 2008|publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref name="NASA ISS Goals">{{Cite web|date=26 June 2007|title=Getting on Board|url=http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208091537/http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html|archive-date=8 December 2007|publisher=[[NASA]]}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|year=2008|title=Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI)|url=http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/forefront/2009/ueno/index.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722111152/http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/forefront/2009/ueno/index.shtml|archive-date=22 July 2011|access-date=12 March 2011|publisher=JAXA}}</ref><ref name="esa-20110311">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Research/SOLAR_three_years_observing_and_ready_for_solar_maximum|title=SOLAR: three years observing and ready for solar maximum|date=11 March 2011|publisher=[[ESA]]|access-date=4 June 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131833/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Research/SOLAR_three_years_observing_and_ready_for_solar_maximum|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref> Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease.<ref name="Worldbook at NASA" /> Crews fly [[List of International Space Station expeditions|expeditions]] of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 man-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.<ref name="Science in School">{{Citation|url=https://www.scienceinschool.org/article/2009/the-international-space-station-life-in-space/|title=The International Space Station: life in space|last1=Hartevelt-Velani|first1=Shamim|last2=Walker|first2=Carl|last3=Elmann-Larsen|first3=Benny|date=23 November 2009|publisher=Science in School|access-date=17 February 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203232623/https://www.scienceinschool.org/article/2009/the-international-space-station-life-in-space/|archive-date=3 February 2023|issue=10}}</ref>

Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe. According to NASA, the AMS is as important as the [[Hubble Space Telescope]]. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs.<ref name="nasa-20110318">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/amsprocessing.html|title=AMS to Focus on Invisible Universe|date=18 March 2011|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=8 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305123234/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/amsprocessing.html|archive-date=5 March 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="nasa-20090814">{{Cite web|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/14aug_ams/|title=In Search of Antimatter Galaxies|date=14 August 2009|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=8 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114162151/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/14aug_ams/|archive-date=14 January 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of [[dark matter]] may have been detected by the AMS.<ref name="APS-20130403">{{Cite journal|url=https://boa.unimib.it/bitstream/10281/44680/1/2013_PhysRevLett.110.141102_positron_fraction.pdf|title=First Result from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station: Precision Measurement of the Positron Fraction in Primary Cosmic Rays of 0.5–350 GeV|last=Aguilar, M. et al. (AMS Collaboration)|date=3 April 2013|page=141102|bibcode=2013PhRvL.110n1102A|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.141102|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132812/https://boa.unimib.it/bitstream/10281/44680/1/2013_PhysRevLett.110.141102_positron_fraction.pdf|archive-date=10 August 2023|journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]|volume=110|issue=14|pmid=25166975|doi-access=free|issn=0031-9007}}</ref><ref name="AMS-20130403">{{cite web|last=Staff|date=3 April 2013|title=First Result from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Experiment|url=http://www.ams02.org/2013/04/first-results-from-the-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-ams-experiment/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408185229/http://www.ams02.org/2013/04/first-results-from-the-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-ams-experiment/|archive-date=8 April 2013|access-date=3 April 2013|website=AMS Collaboration}}</ref><ref name="AP-20130403">{{Cite news|last1=Heilprin|first1=John|last2=Borenstein|first2=Seth|date=3 April 2013|title=Scientists find hint of dark matter from cosmos|agency=Associated Press|url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20130403/DA5E6JAG3.html|url-status=dead|access-date=3 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510152050/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20130403/DA5E6JAG3.html|archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20130403">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22016504|title=Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer zeroes in on dark matter|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=3 April 2013|access-date=3 April 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812222642/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-22016504|archive-date=12 August 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref><ref name="NASA-20130403">{{Cite press release|url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tv-briefing-discusses-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-results/|title=NASA TV Briefing Discusses Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer Results|last1=Perrotto|first1=Trent J.|last2=Byerly|first2=Josh|publisher=[[NASA]]|id=M13-054|access-date=3 April 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109114859/https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-tv-briefing-discusses-alpha-magnetic-spectrometer-results/|archive-date=9 November 2023}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20130403">{{Cite news|last=Overbye|first=Dennis|date=3 April 2013|title=Tantalizing New Clues into the Mysteries of Dark Matter|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/science/space/new-clues-to-the-mystery-of-dark-matter.html|url-status=live|access-date=3 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820032900/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/science/space/new-clues-to-the-mystery-of-dark-matter.html|archive-date=20 August 2017}}</ref> According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays".{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the [[solar wind]], in addition to [[cosmic ray]]s), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity.<ref name="Space Microbiology">{{Cite journal|last1=Horneck|first1=Gerda|last2=Klaus|first2=David M.|last3=Mancinelli|first3=Rocco L.|date=March 2010|title=Space Microbiology|url=http://syntheticbiology.arc.nasa.gov/files/SpaceMicrobiology%20MMBR%201.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|publisher=[[American Society for Microbiology]]|volume=74|issue=1|pages=121–156|bibcode=2010MMBR...74..121H|doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-09|pmc=2832349|pmid=20197502|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830095643/http://syntheticbiology.arc.nasa.gov/files/SpaceMicrobiology%20MMBR%201.pdf|archive-date=30 August 2011|access-date=4 June 2011}} See Space Environment on p. 122.</ref> Some simple forms of life called [[extremophile]]s,<ref name="Beer microbes">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11039206|title=Beer microbes live 553 days outside ISS|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=23 August 2010|access-date=4 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163449/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-11039206|archive-date=11 August 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> as well as small invertebrates called [[tardigrade]]s<ref name="Waterbears">{{Cite journal|last=Ledford|first=Heidi|date=8 September 2008|title=Spacesuits optional for 'water bears'|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|doi=10.1038/news.2008.1087}}</ref> can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through [[Desiccation#Biology and ecology|desiccation]].

Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including [[muscle atrophy]], [[Osteoporosis|bone loss]], and fluid shift. These data will be used to determine whether high duration [[human spaceflight]] and [[space colonisation]] are feasible. In 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggested that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to [[Human mission to Mars|travel to Mars]].<ref name="JCB">{{Cite book|first=Jay|last=Buckey|title=Space Physiology|date=23 February 2006|publisher=Oxford University Press USA|isbn=978-0-19-513725-5}}</ref><ref name="newscientist-20090722">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17476-ion-engine-could-one-day-power-39-day-trips-to-mars/|title=Ion engine could one day power 39-day trips to Mars|last=Grossman|first=List|date=22 July 2009|access-date=8 January 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015103957/https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17476-ion-engine-could-one-day-power-39-day-trips-to-mars/|archive-date=15 October 2023|magazine=[[New Scientist]]}}</ref>

Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the [[National Space Biomedical Research Institute]] (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the [[Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity]] study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.<ref name="nasa-adum">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html|title=Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity (ADUM)|last=Boen|first=Brooke|date=1 May 2009|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 October 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029061057/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/science/experiments/ADUM.html|archive-date=29 October 2009}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rao|first1=Sishir|last2=van Holsbeeck|first2=Lodewijk|last3=Musial|first3=Joseph L.|last4=Parker|first4=Alton|last5=Bouffard|first5=J. Antonio|last6=Bridge|first6=Patrick|last7=Jackson|first7=Matt|last8=Dulchavsky|first8=Scott A.|display-authors=1|date=May 2008|title=A Pilot Study of Comprehensive Ultrasound Education at the Wayne State University School of Medicine|journal=Journal of Ultrasound in Medicine|volume=27|issue=5|pages=745–749|doi=10.7863/jum.2008.27.5.745|pmid=18424650|s2cid=30566494|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fincke|first1=E. Michael|last2=Padalka|first2=Gennady|last3=Lee|first3=Doohi|last4=van Holsbeeck|first4=Marnix|last5=Sargsyan|first5=Ashot E.|last6=Hamilton|first6=Douglas R.|last7=Martin|first7=David|last8=Melton|first8=Shannon L.|last9=McFarlin|first9=Kellie |last10=Dulchavsky |first10=Scott A.|display-authors=1|date=February 2005|title=Evaluation of Shoulder Integrity in Space: First Report of Musculoskeletal US on the International Space Station|journal=Radiology|volume=234|issue=2|pages=319–322|doi=10.1148/radiol.2342041680|pmid=15533948}}</ref>

In August 2020, scientists reported that [[bacteria]] from Earth, particularly ''[[Deinococcus radiodurans]]'' bacteria, which is highly resistant to [[environmental hazard]]s, were found to survive for three years in [[outer space]], based on studies conducted on the International Space Station. These findings supported the notion of [[panspermia]], the hypothesis that [[life]] exists throughout the [[Universe]], distributed in various ways, including [[space dust]], [[meteoroid]]s, [[asteroid]]s, [[comet]]s, [[Minor planet|planetoid]]s or [[Contamination|contaminated]] [[spacecraft]].<ref name="CNN-20200826">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/26/world/earth-mars-bacteria-space-scn/index.html|title=Bacteria from Earth can survive in space and could endure the trip to Mars, according to new study|last=Strickland|first=Ashley|date=26 August 2020|access-date=26 August 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811171442/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/26/world/earth-mars-bacteria-space-scn/index.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref name="FM-20200826">{{Cite journal|last=Kawaguchi|first=Yuko|display-authors=et al.|date=26 August 2020|title=DNA Damage and Survival Time Course of Deinococcal Cell Pellets During 3 Years of Exposure to Outer Space|journal=[[Frontiers in Microbiology]]|volume=11|page=2050|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.02050|pmid=32983036|pmc=7479814|s2cid=221300151|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Remote sensing]] of the Earth, astronomy, and deep space research on the ISS have significantly increased during the 2010s after the completion of the [[US Orbital Segment]] in 2011. Throughout the more than 20 years of the ISS program, researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined [[aerosol]]s, [[ozone]], [[lightning]], and [[oxide]]s in Earth's atmosphere, as well as the [[Sun]], cosmic rays, [[cosmic dust]], [[antimatter]], and dark matter in the universe. Examples of Earth-viewing remote sensing experiments that have flown on the ISS are the [[Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3]], [[ISS-RapidScat]], [[ECOSTRESS]], the [[Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation]], and the [[Cloud Aerosol Transport System]]. ISS-based astronomy telescopes and experiments include [[SOLAR (ISS)|SOLAR]], the [[Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer]], the [[Calorimetric Electron Telescope]], the [[MAXI (ISS experiment)|Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI)]], and the [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /><ref name="eol-rss">{{Cite web|url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/ISS_Remote_Sensing_Systems/|title=Earth Science & Remote Sensing Missions on ISS|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=9 December 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131526/https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/ISS_Remote_Sensing_Systems/|archive-date=10 August 2023}}</ref>

====Freefall====
[[File:ISS-20 Robert Thirsk at the Minus Eighty Degree Laboratory Freezer.jpg|thumb|ISS crew member storing samples]]
[[File:Space Fire.jpg|thumb|A comparison between the combustion of a candle on [[Earth]] (left) and in a free fall environment, such as that found on the ISS (right)]]

Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of [[Free fall|freefall]], resulting in an apparent state of [[weightlessness]].<ref name="nasa-whatismicrogravity">{{Cite web|last=May|first=Sandra|date=15 February 2012|title=What Is Microgravity?|url=https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/what-is-microgravity-grades-5-8/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107174300/https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/what-is-microgravity-grades-5-8/|archive-date=7 November 2023|access-date=3 September 2018|series=NASA Knows! (Grades 5–8)|publisher=[[NASA]]}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five effects:<ref name="gravity">{{cite web|date=6 December 2005|title=European Users Guide to Low Gravity Platforms|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Human_Spaceflight_Research/European_User_Guide_to_Low-Gravity_Platforms|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402225556/http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Human_Spaceflight_Research/European_User_Guide_to_Low-Gravity_Platforms|archive-date=2 April 2013|access-date=22 March 2013|publisher=European Space Agency}}</ref>
* Drag from the residual atmosphere.
* Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew.
* Actuation of the on-board attitude [[control moment gyroscope]]s.
* [[Rocket engine|Thruster]] firings for attitude or orbital changes.
* [[Gravity-gradient stabilization|Gravity-gradient effects]], also known as [[tidal force|tidal]] effects. Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits. Being mechanically connected, these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a [[rigid body]].

Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of the data, NASA wants to investigate [[microgravity]]'s effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues and the unusual [[protein crystal]]s that can be formed in space.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. Examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of [[superconductivity]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

The study of [[materials science]] is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on Earth.<ref name="nasa-materials-science-101">{{Cite web|url=https://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/msad15sep99_1.htm|title=Materials Science 101|date=15 September 1999|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=18 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614033947/http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/msad15sep99_1.htm|archive-date=14 June 2009}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> Other areas of interest include the effect of low gravity on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve knowledge about energy production and lead to economic and environmental benefits.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />

===Exploration===
[[File:Mars500.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A 3D plan of the Russia-based [[MARS-500]] complex, used for conducting ground-based experiments that complement ISS-based preparations for a [[human mission to Mars]]]]

The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance, and repair and replacement activities on-orbit. This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft.<ref name="ResProg">{{cite web|title=ISS Research Program|url=http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/ISSResearch/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213140014/http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/Advanced/ISSResearch/|archive-date=13 February 2009|access-date=27 February 2009|publisher=NASA}}</ref> Referring to the [[MARS-500]] experiment, a crew isolation experiment conducted on Earth, ESA states, "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations".<ref name="esa mars500">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Mars500/Mars500_study_overview|title=Mars500: study overview|date=4 June 2011|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819135747/https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Mars500/Mars500_study_overview|archive-date=19 August 2023}}</ref> Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS.<!--there are better refs for this including the mention of 2014–2015 I think --><ref name="Mars thing on ISS">{{cite web|date=4 November 2011|title=Space station may be site for next mock Mars mission|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/11/space-station-may-be-site-for.html|website=New Scientist|access-date=1 September 2017|archive-date=11 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711030614/https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2011/11/space-station-may-be-site-for.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars."<ref name="IAF2009">{{cite web|title=The Sustainable Utilisation of the ISS Beyond 2015|url=http://www.iafastro.org/docs/2009/ISS2015.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426051318/http://www.iafastro.org/docs/2009/ISS2015.pdf|archive-date=26 April 2012|access-date=15 December 2011|publisher=International Astronautical Congress}}</ref> [[Human mission to Mars|A crewed mission to Mars]] may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India, and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.<ref name="ESAproposesInvite">{{Cite news|last=de Selding|first=Peter B.|date=3 February 2010|title=ESA Chief Lauds Renewed U.S. Commitment to Space Station, Earth Science|work=Space News|url=http://spacenews.com/esa-chief-lauds-renewed-us-commitment-space-station-earth-science/}}</ref> NASA chief [[Charles Bolden]] stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort."<ref name="Mars a global effort">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/11335-nasa-mars-exploration-space-station.html|title=Space Station Crucial for Going to Mars, NASA Chief Says|last=Chow|first=Denise|date=8 April 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162758/https://www.space.com/11335-nasa-mars-exploration-space-station.html|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=[[Space.com]]}}</ref> Currently, [[Wolf Amendment|US federal legislation]] prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects without approval by the [[FBI]] and Congress.<ref name="justice1">{{cite web|last=Seitz|first=Virginia A.|title=Memorandum Opinion for the General Counsel, Office of Science and Technology Policy|date=19 September 2011|url=https://www.justice.gov/olc/2011/conduct-diplomacy.pdf|website=justice.gov|publisher=[[United States Department of Justice|US Justice Department]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120713080223/http://www.justice.gov/olc/2011/conduct-diplomacy.pdf|access-date=23 May 2012|archive-date=13 July 2012|url-status=dead|page=3}}</ref>

===Education and cultural outreach===
[[File:Crew in ATV with Jules Verne manuscript.jpg|thumb|Original [[Jules Verne]] manuscripts displayed by crew inside the [[Jules Verne ATV|''Jules Verne'' ATV]] (Automated Transfer Vehicle)]]

The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, and email.<ref name="ISSRG">{{Cite book|last=Kitmacher|first=Gary|title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station|publisher=[[Apogee Books]]|year=2006|isbn=978-1-894959-34-6|series=Apogee Books Space Series|location=Canada|pages=71–80|issn=1496-6921}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sandal|first1=Gro M.|last2=Manzey|first2=Dietrich|date=December 2009|title=Cross-cultural issues in space operations: A survey study among ground personnel of the European Space Agency|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222963564|journal=Acta Astronautica|volume=65|issue=11–12|pages=1520–1529|bibcode=2009AcAau..65.1520S|doi=10.1016/j.actaastro.2009.03.074|issn=0094-5765}}</ref> ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms.<ref name="esa-education-material">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Education/Online_material|title=Online Materials|publisher=European Space Agency|access-date=3 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162359/https://www.esa.int/Education/Online_material|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref> In one lesson, students can navigate a [[3D modeling|3D model]] of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.<ref name="esa-iss-3d">{{Cite web|url=https://www.esa.int/Education/ISS_3-D_Teaching_Tool_Spaceflight_Challenge_I|title=ISS 3-D Teaching Tool: Spaceflight Challenge I|date=24 May 2011|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|access-date=8 October 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811164504/https://www.esa.int/Education/ISS_3-D_Teaching_Tool_Spaceflight_Challenge_I|archive-date=11 August 2023}}</ref>

The [[Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency]] (JAXA) aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society".<ref name="jaxa-peaceinyounggminds">{{Cite conference|url=https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/copuos2010/tech-17E.pdf|title=Building Peace in Young Minds through Space Education|date=June 2010|publisher=[[JAXA]]|location=Vienna, Austria|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811162718/https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/copuos2010/tech-17E.pdf|archive-date=11 August 2023|conference=Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space|volume=53}}</ref> Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life.<ref name="jaxa-sunflower-seeds">{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SSK/en/|title=JAXA Spaceflight Seeds Kids I : Spaceflight Sunflower seeds – Let's make them flower! and learn freshly the Earth environment just by contrast with the Space one|year=2006|publisher=[[JAXA]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318025859/http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SSK/en/|archive-date=18 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="jaxa-asagao">{{Cite web|url=http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SIS/en/|title=JAXA Seeds in Space I : Let's Cultivate Spaceflight Asagao (Japanese morning glory), Miyako-gusa (Japanese bird's foot trefoil) Seeds and Identify the Mutants!|year=2006|publisher=[[JAXA]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318025023/http://www.edu.jaxa.jp/education/international/ISS/SIS/en/|archive-date=18 March 2012}}</ref> In the JAXA "Seeds in Space" experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS are explored by growing sunflower seeds that have flown on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of ''Kibō'' utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields.<ref>{{cite web|first=Keiji|last=Murakami|date=14 October 2009|title=JEM Utilization Overview|url=http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/pages/images/stories/Micro%20Oct%2009%20JEM.pdf|publisher=JAXA. Steering Committee for the Decadal Survey on Biological and Physical Sciences in Space|access-date=27 September 2011|archive-date=29 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129141828/http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/pages/images/stories/Micro%20Oct%2009%20JEM.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Cultural activities are another major objective of the ISS programme. Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science."<ref name="jaxa2">{{cite web|first=Tetsuo|last=Tanaka|title=Kibo: Japan's First Human Space Facility|url=http://www.jaxa.jp/article/special/kibo/tanaka01_e.html|access-date=8 October 2011|publisher=JAXA|archive-date=29 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129145716/http://www.jaxa.jp/article/special/kibo/tanaka01_e.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Amateur Radio on the International Space Station|Amateur Radio on the ISS]] (ARISS) is a volunteer programme that encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, through [[amateur radio]] communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several in Europe, as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, [[speakerphone]]s connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the space station.<!--second mention of this ref, needs proper combining --><ref>{{cite web|date=6 June 2011|title=Amateur Radio on the International Space Station|url=http://www.rac.ca/ariss/oindex.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527071557/http://www.rac.ca/ariss/oindex.htm|archive-date=27 May 2011|access-date=10 June 2011}}</ref>
[[File:ESA-Astronaut-Paolo-Nespoli Voice-intro-ENG.flac|thumb|Spoken voice recording by ESA astronaut [[Paolo Nespoli]] on the subject of the ISS, produced in November 2017 for Wikipedia]]
''[[First Orbit]]'' is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about [[Vostok 1]], the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the ISS to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker [[Christopher Riley]] and ESA astronaut [[Paolo Nespoli]] were able to film the view that [[Yuri Gagarin]] saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli is credited as the [[Cinematographer|director of photography]] for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during [[Expedition 26]]/[[Expedition 27|27]].<ref name="guardian-20110411">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2011/apr/11/yuri-gagarin-first-orbit-vostok|title=What Yuri Gagarin saw: First Orbit film to reveal the view from Vostok 1|last=Riley|first=Christopher|date=11 April 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810132648/https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2011/apr/11/yuri-gagarin-first-orbit-vostok|archive-date=10 August 2023|work=The Guardian}}</ref> The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website ''firstorbit.org''.<ref name="firstorbit-faq">{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstorbit.org/first-orbit-faqs|title=Yuri Gagarin's First Orbit – FAQs|publisher=The Attic Room Ltd|access-date=1 May 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131924/http://www.firstorbit.org/first-orbit-faqs|archive-date=10 August 2023|website=firstorbit.org}}</ref>

In May 2013, commander [[Chris Hadfield]] shot a music video of [[David Bowie]]'s "[[Space Oddity]]" on board the station, which was released on YouTube.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Warr|first=Philippa|date=13 May 2013|title=Commander Hadfield bids farewell to ISS with Reddit-inspired Bowie cover|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-05/13/commander-hadfield-space-oddity|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012212949/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-05/13/commander-hadfield-space-oddity|archive-date=12 October 2013|access-date=22 October 2013|magazine=[[Wired UK|Wired]]}}</ref><ref name="bbc-20130513">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/science-environment-22506395|title=Astronaut bids farewell with Bowie cover version (inc. video)|date=13 May 2013|access-date=24 September 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163327/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/science-environment-22506395|archive-date=11 August 2023|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> It was the first music video filmed in space.<ref name="gizmodo-20130512">{{Cite web|url=https://io9.gizmodo.com/chris-hadfield-sings-space-oddity-in-the-first-music-503764317|title=Chris Hadfield sings 'Space Oddity' in the first music video in space|last=Davis|first=Lauren|date=12 May 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811163440/https://gizmodo.com/chris-hadfield-sings-space-oddity-in-the-first-music-503764317|archive-date=11 August 2023|website=[[Gizmodo]]}}</ref>

In November 2017, while participating in [[Expedition 52]]/[[Expedition 53|53]] on the ISS, [[Paolo Nespoli]] made two recordings of his spoken voice (one in English and the other in his native Italian), for use on [[Wikipedia]] articles. These were the first content made in space specifically for Wikipedia.<ref name="Mabbett">{{Cite web|url=https://blog.wikimedia.org/2017/11/29/astronaut-spoken-voice/|title=Close encounters of the Wikipedia kind: Astronaut is first to specifically contribute to Wikipedia from space|last=Mabbett|first=Andy|date=29 November 2017|publisher=Wikimedia foundation|access-date=4 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604132523/https://diff.wikimedia.org/2017/11/29/astronaut-spoken-voice/|archive-date=4 June 2023|website=Diff}}</ref><ref name="Petris">{{Cite news|url=https://www.meteoweb.eu/2017/12/primo-contributo-extraterrestre-wikipedia-nespoli/1009617/|title=Primo contributo 'extraterrestre' su Wikipedia: è di Nespoli|trans-title=First 'Extraterrestrial' Contribution on Wikipedia: It's by Nespoli.|last=Petris|first=Antonella|date=1 December 2017|language=it-IT|access-date=4 December 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811173118/https://www.meteoweb.eu/2017/12/primo-contributo-extraterrestre-wikipedia-nespoli/1009617/|archive-date=11 August 2023|work=Meteo Web}}</ref>

In November 2021, a [[virtual reality]] exhibit called The Infinite featuring life aboard the ISS was announced.<ref name="spacecom-20211123">{{Cite news|url=https://www.space.com/the-infinite-space-station-vr-houston|title='The Infinite' VR space station tour to premiere spacewalk in Houston|last=Pearlman|first=Robert Z.|date=23 November 2021|access-date=27 November 2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810144311/https://www.space.com/the-infinite-space-station-vr-houston|archive-date=10 August 2023|website=[[Space.com]]}}</ref>