Editing Inner Mongolia (section)

== History ==
{{See also|History of Mongolia}}

Much of what is known about the history of the [[Mongolian Plateau]] is taken from Chinese chronicles and historians. Before the rise of the Mongols in the 13th century, what is now central and western Inner Mongolia, especially the [[Hetao]] region, alternated in control between [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] farming communities in the south, and [[Xiongnu]], [[Xianbei]], [[Khitan people|Khitan]], [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]], [[Tujue]], and nomadic [[Mongols in China|Mongol]] of the north. The historical narrative of what is now Eastern Inner Mongolia mostly consists of alternations between different [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] and [[Mongols in China|Mongol]] tribes, rather than the struggle between nomads and Chinese farmers.

=== Early history ===
{{see also|Han dynasty in Inner Asia|Tang dynasty in Inner Asia}}
[[Slab Grave Culture|Slab Grave cultural]] monuments are found in Northern, Central and Eastern [[Mongolia]], Inner Mongolia, North-Western China, Southern, Central-Eastern and Southern [[Baikal Lake|Baikal]] territory. Mongolian scholars prove that this culture related to the [[Proto-Mongols]].<ref>''History of Mongolia'', Volume I, 2003.</ref>

During the [[Zhou dynasty]], Central and Western Inner Mongolia (the [[Hetao]] region and surrounding areas) were inhabited by nomadic peoples such as the [[Loufan (people)|Loufan]], Linhu and [[Beidi|Dí]], while Eastern Inner Mongolia was inhabited by the [[Donghu people|Donghu]]. During the [[Warring States period]], [[King Wuling of Zhao|King Wuling]] (340–295 BC) of the [[state of Zhao]] based in what is now [[Hebei]] and [[Shanxi|Shanxi Provinces]] pursued an expansionist policy towards the region. After destroying the [[Beidi|Dí]] [[state of Zhongshan]] in what is now Hebei province, he defeated the Linhu and [[Loufan (people)|Loufan]] and created the [[Yunzhong Commandery]] near modern [[Hohhot]]. King Wuling of Zhao also built a long wall stretching through the Hetao region. After [[Qin Shi Huang]] created the first unified Chinese empire in 221 BC, he sent the general [[Meng Tian]] to [[Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu|drive the Xiongnu from the region]] and incorporated the old Zhao wall into the Qin dynasty Great Wall of China. He also maintained two commanderies in the region: [[Jiuyuan Commandery|Jiuyuan]] and Yunzhong and moved 30,000 households there to solidify the region. After the Qin dynasty collapsed in 206 BC, these efforts were abandoned.<ref>Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian.</ref>

During the [[Western Han dynasty]], [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] sent the general [[Wei Qing]] to [[Han–Xiongnu War|reconquer the Hetao region from the Xiongnu]] in 127 BC. After the conquest, Emperor Wu continued the policy of building settlements in Hetao to defend against the Xiong-Nu. In that same year, he established the commanderies of [[Shuofang Commandery|Shuofang]] and [[Wuyuan Commandery|Wuyuan]] in Hetao. At the same time, what is now Eastern Inner Mongolia was controlled by the [[Xianbei]], who would, later on, eclipse the Xiongnu in power and influence.

During the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] (25–220 AD), Xiongnu who surrendered to the Han dynasty began to be settled in Hetao and intermingled with the Han immigrants in the area. Later on, during the [[Western Jin dynasty]], it was a Xiongnu noble from Hetao, [[Liu Yuan (Han Zhao)|Liu Yuan]], who established the [[Han Zhao]] kingdom in the region, thereby beginning the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period that saw the disintegration of northern China under a variety of Han and non-Han (including Xiongnu and Xianbei) regimes.

The [[Sui dynasty]] (581–618) and [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) re-established a unified Chinese empire and like their predecessors, they conquered and settled people into Hetao, though once again these efforts were aborted when the Tang empire began to collapse. Hetao (along with the rest of what now consists Inner Mongolia) was then taken over by the [[Liao dynasty]] founded by the [[Khitan people|Khitans]], a nomadic people originally from what is now the southern part of Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia. They were followed by the [[Western Xia]] of the [[Tangut people|Tangut]]s, who took control of what is now the western part of Inner Mongolia (including Western Hetao). The Khitans were later replaced by the [[Jurchens]], precursors to the modern [[Manchu people|Manchus]], who established the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] over Manchuria and Northern China.

=== Mongol and Ming periods ===
{{Main|Mongol Empire|Mongolia under Yuan rule|Northern Yuan|Ming dynasty in Inner Asia}}
[[File:Siège de Beijing (1213-1214).jpeg|thumb|left|[[Persian miniature]] depicting [[Genghis Khan]] entering [[Beijing]]]]
[[File:Northern Yuan.png|thumb|The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent]]

After [[Genghis Khan]] unified the [[Mongol]] tribes in 1206 and founded the [[Mongol Empire]], the [[Tanguts|Tangut]] [[Western Xia]] empire was ultimately conquered in 1227, and the [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] fell in 1234. In 1271, [[Kublai Khan]], the grandson of Genghis Khan established the [[Yuan dynasty]]. Kublai Khan's summer capital [[Shangdu]] (aka Xanadu) was located near present-day [[Duolun County|Dolonnor]]. During that time [[Ongud]] and [[Khunggirad]] peoples dominated the area of what is now Inner Mongolia. After the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Han-led [[Ming dynasty]] in 1368, the Ming captured parts of Inner Mongolia including Shangdu and [[Yingchang]]. The Ming rebuilt the [[Great Wall of China]] at its present location, which roughly follows the southern border of the modern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (though it deviates significantly at the Hebei-Inner Mongolia border). The Ming established the Three Guards composed of the Mongols there. Soon after the [[Tumu incident]] in 1449, when the Oirat ruler [[Esen taishi]] captured the Chinese emperor, Mongols flooded south from Outer Mongolia to Inner Mongolia. Thus from then on until 1635, Inner Mongolia was the political and cultural center of the Mongols during the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]].<ref>CPAtwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 246.</ref>

=== Qing period ===
{{Main|Mongolia under Qing rule}}

The eastern Mongol tribes near and in Manchuria, particularly the [[Khorchin]] and Southern [[Khalkha]] in today's Inner Mongolia intermarried, formed alliances with, and fought against the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] tribes until [[Nurhaci]], the founder of the new Jin dynasty, consolidated his control over all groups in the area in 1593.<ref>Atwood, Christopher. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 449.</ref> The [[Manchus]] gained far-reaching control of the Inner Mongolian tribes in 1635, when [[Ligden Khan]]'s son surrendered the [[Chahar Mongols|Chakhar]] Mongol tribes to the [[Manchus]]. The Manchus subsequently invaded Ming China in 1644, bringing it under the control of their newly established [[Qing dynasty]]. Under the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), the [[Mongolian Plateau]] was [[Mongolia under Qing rule|administered]] in a different way for each region:
[[File:Map-Qing Dynasty 1616-en.jpg|thumb|Mongolia plateau during early 17th century]]
[[File:Qing_Dynasty_1820.png|thumb|Inner Mongolia and [[Outer Mongolia]] within the Qing dynasty, c. 1820]]
* "Outer Mongolia": This region corresponds to the modern state of [[Mongolia]], plus the Russian-administered region of [[Tannu Uriankhai]], and modern-day aimag of [[Bayan-Ölgii]] which historically was a part of northern [[Xinjiang]] under China's Qing Dynasty. It included the four leagues (''aimag'') of the [[Khalkha Mongols]] north of the [[Gobi Desert]], as well as the [[Tannu Uriankhai]] which  largely corresponds to modern-day [[Tuva Republic]] of Russia, and [[Khovd Province|Khovd]] regions in northwestern Mongolia, which were overseen by the [[Uliastai General|General of Uliastai]] from the city of [[Uliastai]].
* "Inner Mongolia": This region corresponded to most of modern Inner Mongolia and some neighbouring areas in [[Liaoning]] and [[Jilin]] provinces. The [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|banners]] and tribes in this region came under six [[Leagues of China|leagues]] (''chuulghan''): [[Tongliao|Jirim]], [[Juuuda]], [[Josutu]], [[Xilingol]], [[Ulanqab]], and [[Yekejuu]].
* "Taoxi Mongolia": The [[Alashan Öölüd]] and [[Ejine Torghuud]] banners were separate from the aimags of Outer Mongolia and the chuulghans of Inner Mongolia. This territory is equivalent to modern-day [[Alxa League]], the westernmost part of what is now Inner Mongolia.
* The Chahar [[Banners of Inner Mongolia|Banners]] were controlled by the military commander of Chahar (now [[Zhangjiakou]]). Their extent corresponded to southern Ulanqab and [[Bayannur]] in modern Inner Mongolia, plus the region around [[Zhangjiakou]] in [[Hebei]] province. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of [[Zhili Province|Zhili]] and [[Shanxi]] provinces also belonged to this region.
* The [[Guihua Tümed]] banner was controlled by the military commander of Suiyuan (now [[Hohhot]]). This corresponds to the vicinities of the modern city of [[Hohhot]]. At the same time, the jurisdiction of some border departments of modern [[Shanxi]] province also belonged to this region.
* The [[Hulunbuir]] region in what is now northeastern Inner Mongolia was part of the jurisdiction of the General of [[Heilongjiang]], one of the three generals of [[Manchuria]].

The Inner Mongolian [[Chahar Mongols|Chahar]] leader [[Ligdan Khan]], a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son [[Ejei Khan]] surrendered to the Qing. Ejei Khan was given the title of Prince ({{lang-zh|labels=no |t=親王 |p=qīn wáng}}), and Inner Mongolian nobility became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in [[Shenyang]] and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni. Abunai then bid his time and then he and his brother Lubuzung revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the [[Revolt of the Three Feudatories]], with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing then crushed the rebels in a battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor, unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.

Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. As a result, the Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor = 3985584|title = Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty |last = Reardon-Anderson |first = James |date=Oct 2000|volume = 5 |pages = 503–530 |number = 4 |journal = Environmental History |doi = 10.2307/3985584 |bibcode = 2000EnvH....5..503R |s2cid = 143541438 }}</ref>

Ordinary Mongols were not allowed to travel outside their own leagues. Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18 provinces) and were given serious punishments if they did in order to keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=fA7ADxUa6vUC&dq=Cross+league+borders+mongols&pg=PA41 Bulag 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102101252/https://books.google.com/books?id=fA7ADxUa6vUC&pg=PA41&dq=Cross+league+borders+mongols&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yqgfVMatINiiyATElYKAAQ&ved=0CCcQ6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Cross%20league%20borders%20mongols&f=false |date=2 November 2022 }}, p. 41.</ref> Mongol pilgrims wanting to leave their banner's borders for religious reasons such as pilgrimage had to apply for passports to give them permission.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charleux |first1=Isabelle |title=Nomads on Pilgrimage: Mongols on Wutaishan (China), 1800–1940 |date=2015 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-29778-4 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VzoLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15}}</ref>

During the eighteenth century, growing numbers of [[Han Chinese]] settlers had illegally begun to move into the Inner Mongolian steppe. By 1791, there had been so many Han Chinese settlers in the [[Qian Gorlos Mongol Autonomous County|Front Gorlos Banner]] that the jasak had petitioned the Qing government to legalise the status of the peasants who had already settled there.<ref>{{cite book |title = The Cambridge History of China |volume=10 |year=1978 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |page=356 }}</ref>

During the nineteenth century, the Manchus were becoming increasingly sinicised and faced with the Russian threat, they began to encourage Han Chinese farmers to settle in both Mongolia and Manchuria. This policy was followed by subsequent governments. The railroads that were being built in these regions were especially useful to the Han Chinese settlers. Land was either sold by Mongol Princes, or leased to Han Chinese farmers, or simply taken away from the nomads and given to Han Chinese farmers.

A group of Han Chinese during the Qing dynasty called "Mongol followers" immigrated to Inner Mongolia who worked as servants for Mongols and Mongol princes and married Mongol women. Their descendants continued to marry Mongol women and changed their ethnicity to Mongol as they assimilated into the Mongol people, an example of this were the ancestors of [[Li Shouxin]]. They distinguished themselves apart from "true Mongols" 真蒙古.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Tsai |first=Wei-chieh|date=June 2017 |title=Mongolization of Han Chinese and Manchu Settlers in Qing Mongolia, 1700–1911 |type=Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University |publisher=ProQuest LLC |page=7 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/5c6d78516e80433b02e24bbac4409096/1.pdf?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Xiaoyuan |title=Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911–1950 |date=2006 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-5426-8 |page=117 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhJY7VgEWTUC&q=li+shouxin+zhen+menggu&pg=PA117}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Borjigin |first=Burensain |title=The Complex Structure of Ethnic Conflict in the Frontier: Through the Debates around the 'Jindandao Incident' in 1891 |journal=Inner Asia |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=2004 |pages=41–60 |doi=10.1163/146481704793647171 |jstor=23615320}}</ref>

=== Republic of China and the Second World War periods ===
{{Further|Mongolia (1911–24)|Inner Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party|Mengjiang|Mongol United Autonomous Government}}
[[File:1912 Inner Mongolia.jpg|thumb|left|Mongols stand in front of a yurt, 1912]]
Outer Mongolia gained independence from the Qing dynasty in 1911, when the Jebtsundamba Khutugtu of the Khalkha was declared the [[Bogd Khan]] of Mongolia. Although almost all banners of Inner Mongolia recognised the Bogd Khan as the supreme ruler of Mongols, the internal strife within the region prevented a full reunification. The Mongol rebellions in Inner Mongolia were counterbalanced by princes who hoped to see a restored Qing dynasty in Manchuria and Mongolia, as they considered the theocratic rule of the Bogd Khan would be against their modernising objectives for Mongolia.<ref>Atwood, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 454.</ref> Eventually, the newly formed [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] promised a new nation of five races ([[Han Chinese|Han]], [[Manchu]], [[Mongols in China|Mongol]], [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]]).<ref>Atwood, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 91,</ref> and suppressed the Mongol rebellions in the area.<ref>Belov, E. A. Anti-Chinese rebellion led by Babujav in Inner Mongolia, 1915–1916. – Annaly (Moscow), no. 2, 1996.</ref><ref>Belov, E. A. Rossiya i Mongoliya (1911–1919). Moscow: Vost. Lit. Publ.</ref>

The Republic of China reorganised Inner Mongolia into provinces:
* [[Rehe (province)|Rehe]] province was created to include the Juuuda and Josutu leagues, plus the [[Chengde]] area in what is now northern [[Hebei]].
* [[Chahar (province)|Chahar]] province was created to include Xilingol league as well as much of the former territory of the Eight Banners.
* [[Suiyuan]] province was created to include Ulanqab league, Yekejuu league, and the Hetao region (former Guihua Tümed territory).
* Hulunbuir stayed within [[Heilongjiang]] in Manchuria, which had become a province.
* Most of Jirim league came under the new province of [[Liaoning|Fengtian]] in southern Manchuria.
* Taoxi Mongolia, i.e., Alashan and Ejine leagues, was incorporated into neighbouring [[Gansu]] province. Later on [[Ningxia]] province was split out of northern Gansu, and Taoxi Mongolia became part of Ningxia.
Some [[Republic of China]] maps still show this structure.

The history of Inner Mongolia during the Second World War is complicated, with Japanese invasion and different kinds of resistance movements. In 1931, Manchuria came under the control of the Japanese puppet state [[Manchukuo]], taking some Mongol areas in the Manchurian provinces (i.e., Hulunbuir and Jirim leagues) along. Rehe was also incorporated into Manchukuo in 1933, taking Juu Uda and Josutu leagues along with it. These areas were occupied by Manchukuo until the end of [[World War II]] in 1945.

In 1937, the [[Empire of Japan]] openly and fully invaded the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. On 8 December 1937, Mongolian Prince [[Demchugdongrub]] (also known as "De Wang") declared independence for the remaining parts of Inner Mongolia (i.e., the Suiyuan and Chahar provinces) as [[Mengjiang]], and signed agreements with Manchukuo and Japan. Its capital was established at [[Zhangbei Town|Zhangbei]] (now in [[Hebei]] province), with the Japanese puppet government's control extending as far west as the [[Hohhot]] region. The Japanese advance was defeated by Hui Muslim General [[Ma Hongbin]] at the [[Battle of West Suiyuan]] and [[Battle of Wuyuan]]. Since 1945, Inner Mongolia has remained part of China.

The Mongol [[Ulanhu]] fought against the Japanese.
[[File:Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans.jpg|thumb|left|Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans]]
Ethnic Mongolian guerrilla units were created by the Kuomintang Nationalists to fight against the Japanese during the war in the late 30s and early 40s. These Mongol militias were created by the Ejine and Alashaa based commissioner's offices created by the Kuomintang.<ref name="Lin">{{cite book|last=Lin|first=Hsiao-ting|author1-link=Lin Hsiao-ting|chapter=4 War and new frontier designs|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8YtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|series=Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia|date=13 September 2010|isbn=978-1-136-92393-7|publisher=Routledge|pages=65–66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Lin|first=Hsiao-ting|chapter=4 War and new frontier designs|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBPJBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT136|series=Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia|date=13 September 2010|isbn=978-1-136-92392-0|publisher=Routledge|pages=136–}}</ref> Prince Demchugdongrub's Mongols were targeted by Kuomintang Mongols to defect to the Republic of China. The Nationalists recruited 1,700 ethnic minority fighters in Inner Mongolia and created war zones in the Tumet Banner, Ulanchab League, and Ordos Yekejuu League.<ref name="Lin"/><ref name="Lin2">{{cite book|last=Lin|first=Hsiao-ting|chapter=4 War and new frontier designs|title=Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBPJBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT137|series=Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia|date=13 September 2010|isbn=978-1-136-92392-0|publisher=Routledge|page=137|access-date=24 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110001138/https://books.google.com/books?id=DBPJBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT137|archive-date=10 November 2018}}</ref>

The [[Inner Mongolian People's Republic]] was founded shortly after the Second World War. It existed from 9 September 1945 until 6 November 1945.

=== People's Republic of China ===

The Communist movement gradually gained momentum as part of the Third Communist International in Inner Mongolia during the Japanese period. By the end of WWII, the Inner Mongolian faction of the ComIntern had a functional militia and actively opposed the attempts at independence by De Wang's Chinggisid princes on the grounds of fighting feudalism. Following the end of [[World War II]], the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communists]] gained control of Manchuria as well as the Inner Mongolian Communists with decisive Soviet support and established the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 1947. The Comintern army was absorbed into the People's Liberation Army. Initially, the autonomous region included just the Hulunbuir region. Over the next decade, as the communists established the [[People's Republic of China]] and consolidated control over mainland China, Inner Mongolia was expanded westwards to include five of the six original leagues (except Josutu League, which remains in [[Liaoning]] province), the northern part of the Chahar region, by then a league as well (southern Chahar remains in [[Hebei]] province), the Hetao region, and the Alashan and Ejine banners. Eventually, nearly all areas with sizeable Mongol populations were incorporated into the region, giving present-day Inner Mongolia its elongated shape. The leader of Inner Mongolia during that time, as both regional CPC secretary and head of regional government, was [[Ulanhu]].

During the [[Cultural Revolution]], the administration of Ulanhu was purged, and a wave of repressions was initiated against the Mongol population of the autonomous region.<ref>David Sneath, "The Impact of the Cultural Revolution in China on the Mongolians of Inner Mongolia", in ''Modern Asian Studies'', Vol. 28, No. 2 (May 1994), pp. 409–430.</ref> Among the victims in Inner Mongolia, 75 per cent were Mongols, even though they only constituted 10 per cent of the population.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dikötter |first1=Frank |title=The Cultural Revolution: A People's History, 1962–1976 |date=2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |location=New York |isbn=978-1-63286-422-2 |page=191 |edition=1st U.S.}}</ref> In 1969, much of Inner Mongolia was distributed among surrounding provinces, with Hulunbuir divided between [[Heilongjiang]] and [[Jilin]], Jirim going to [[Jilin]], Juu Uda to [[Liaoning]], and the Alashan and Ejine region divided among [[Gansu]] and [[Ningxia]]. This decision was reversed in 1979.

Inner Mongolia was underdeveloped until the early 2000s, when huge [[Mining industry of China|mineral deposits]] including [[Coal in China|coal]] (such as Dongsheng Coalfield) and [[Rare earth industry in China|rare earth metals]] were discovered.<ref name="Zhan-2022">{{Cite book |last=Zhan |first=Jing Vivian |title=China's Contained Resource Curse: How Minerals Shape State-Capital-Labor Relations |date=2022 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-009-04898-9 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom}}</ref>{{Rp|page=47}} GDP growth has continually been over 10%, even 15% and connections with the [[Wolf Economy]] to the north has helped development. However, growth has come at a cost with huge amounts of pollution and degradation to the grasslands.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/04/19/world/asia/china-mongolians-culture/ |title=Ethnic Mongolians in China concerned about cultural threat |first=Chi Chi |last=Zhang |date=19 April 2012 |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=24 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092316/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/04/19/world/asia/china-mongolians-culture/ |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> Attempts to attract [[Han Chinese|ethnic Chinese]] to migrate from other regions, as well as urbanise those rural nomads and peasants has led to huge amounts of corruption and waste in public spending, such as the [[Kangbashi District|Kangbashi district]] of [[Ordos City]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Ordos, China: A Modern Ghost Town |url=https://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1975397,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=24 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150324164032/http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1975397,00.html |archive-date=24 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17390729 |title = Ordos: The biggest ghost town in China |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=21 June 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180624074430/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17390729 |archive-date=24 June 2018 |date=17 March 2012 |last1=Day |first1=Peter}}</ref> However, the district's population has steadily increased in the years since, reaching nearly 153,000 people by 2017, a significant rise from 30,000 in 2009, demonstrating the growth and development brought about by these efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shepard |first=Wade |title=China's Most Infamous 'Ghost City' Is Rising From The Desert |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2017/06/30/ordos-chinas-most-infamous-ex-ghost-city-continues-rising/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> Acute uneven [[wealth distribution]] has further exacerbated ethnic tensions, many indigenous Mongolians feeling they are increasingly marginalised in their own homeland, leading to [[2011 Inner Mongolia unrest|riots in 2011]] and 2013.<ref>{{cite web |title=Inner Mongolians culture clash |url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2012/04/18/atsr-china-inner-mongolian-culture-clash.cnn |date=18 April 2012 |work=CNN |access-date=24 March 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402185604/http://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2012/04/18/atsr-china-inner-mongolian-culture-clash.cnn |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/launches-09052013110502.html |title=China Launches 'Strike Hard' Anti-Rumor Campaign in Inner Mongolia |work=Radio Free Asia |date=5 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402191136/http://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/launches-09052013110502.html |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref>

On 31 August 2020, [[2020 Inner Mongolia protests|large protests]] broke out in ethnic Mongol communities due to unannounced plans by the Chinese government to phase out Mongolian-medium teaching.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinese-authorities-face-widespread-anger-in-inner-mongolia-after-requiring-mandarin-language-classes/2020/08/31/3ba5a938-eb5b-11ea-bd08-1b10132b458f_story.html|title=Chinese authorities face widespread anger in Inner Mongolia after requiring Mandarin-language classes|date=31 August 2020|access-date=1 September 2020|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|author=Gerry Shih}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Curbs on Mongolian Language Teaching Prompt Large Protests in China |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/31/world/asia/china-protest-mongolian-language-schools.html|website=[[The New York Times]] |author=Amy Qin|date=31 August 2020|access-date=1 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/schools-08312020093412.html|title=Mass Protests Erupt as China Moves to End Mongolian-Medium Teaching in Schools|website=[[Radio Free Asia]]|date=31 August 2020|access-date=1 September 2020|author=Qiao Long |translator=Luisetta Mudie|editor=Luisetta Mudie}}</ref>