Editing Indonesian National Revolution (section)

== Japanese surrender ==
===Proclamation of Indonesian Independence===
{{Main|Proclamation of Indonesian Independence}}
The [[Victory over Japan Day|unconditional surrender of Japan]] on August 15, 1945 was eagerly received by the radical and politicised ''pemuda'' (Indonesian for 'male youth') groups. They pressured Sukarno and Hatta to proclaim Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945, two days later. The following day, the [[Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence]] (PPKI) elected Sukarno as [[President of Indonesia|president]], and Hatta as [[Vice President of Indonesia|vice-president]].{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=213}}{{sfn|Taylor|2003|p=325}}{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=30}}

{{blockquote|
| style = text-align:left; width:30%;padding:10px 15px; border-style:solid; border-width:1px;min-width: 20em
| text = PROCLAMATION

We, the people of Indonesia, hereby declare the independence of Indonesia.

Matters which concern the transfer of power and other things will be executed by careful means and in the shortest possible time.

Djakarta, 17 August 1945{{efn|group=infobox|In fact, 05 was used for the year meaning [[Japanese imperial year]] 2605.}}

In the name of the people of Indonesia,

[signed] Soekarno—Hatta

(translation by the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]], October 1948){{sfn|Kahin|2000|pp=1–4}}
}}

===Revolution and Bersiap===
{{See also|Bersiap}}

[[File:Indonesian flag raised 17 August 1945.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Bendera Pusaka]]'', the first Indonesian flag, is raised on 17 August 1945.]]
It was mid-September before news of the declaration of independence spread to the outer islands, and many Indonesians far from the capital [[Jakarta]] did not believe it. As the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=214–215}} External power had shifted; it would be weeks before [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]] shipping entered Indonesia (owing in part to [[Black Armada|boycotts and strikes, in Australia]], on coaling, loading and manning Dutch shipping from Australia, where the Netherlands East Indies Government in exile was based). These strikes were only fully broken in July 1946.{{sfn|Lockwood|1975}} The Japanese, on the other hand, were required by the terms of the surrender to both lay down their arms and maintain order; a contradiction that some resolved by handing weapons to Japanese-trained Indonesians.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=32}}{{sfn|Cribb|1986|pp=72–85}}

The resulting power vacuums in Java and Sumatra in the weeks following the Japanese surrender created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=32}} Many ''pemuda'' joined pro-Republic struggle groups (''badan perjuangan''). The most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded ''Giyūgun'' ([[Defenders of the Homeland|PETA]], volunteer army) and ''[[Heiho]]'' (local soldiers employed by Japanese armed forces) groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit. In the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=215–216}}

By September 1945, control of major infrastructure like railway stations and trams in Java's largest cities had been taken over by Republican ''pemuda'', such as the [[Railway Youth Force]], who encountered little Japanese resistance.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=215–216}} To spread the revolutionary message, ''pemuda'' set up their own radio stations and newspapers, and graffiti proclaimed the nationalist sentiment. On most islands, struggle committees and [[militia]] were set up.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=198}} Republican newspapers and journals were common in Jakarta, [[Yogyakarta]], and [[Surakarta]], which fostered a generation of writers known as ''angkatan 45'' ('generation of 45') many of whom believed their work could be part of the revolution.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|pp=215–216}}

Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment; some wanted passionate armed struggle; others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist [[Tan Malaka]], spread the idea that this was a revolutionary struggle to be led and won by the Indonesian ''pemuda''. Sukarno and Hatta, by contrast, were more interested in planning government and institutions to achieve independence through diplomacy.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=97}} Pro-revolution demonstrations took place in large cities, including one in Jakarta on 19 September with over 200,000 people, which Sukarno and Hatta, fearing violence, successfully quelled.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=216}}

By September 1945, many of the self-proclaimed ''pemuda'', who were ready to die for '100% freedom', were getting impatient. It was common for ethnic 'out-groups' – Dutch internees, [[Indo people|Eurasian]], [[Ambon Island|Ambonese]] and [[Chinese Indonesians|Chinese]] – and anyone considered to be a spy, to be subjected to intimidation, kidnapping, robbery, murder and organised massacres. Such attacks would continue throughout the course of the revolution, but were most present during the 1945–46 period, which is known as the [[Bersiap]].{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=49}}{{sfn|Fenton-Huie|2005|p=}}{{sfn|Reid|1981|pp=107–157}}

Estimates of the death toll of the Bersiap period vary from 3,500 to 30,000. [[NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies|NIOD]] concluded a Dutch casualty number of approximately 5,500 with possible higher numbers but not above 10,000.<ref name="niod"/> Estimates of the number of Indonesian fighters killed in the lead up to and during the Battle of Surabaya range from 6,300 to 15,000.{{sfn|Vickers|2005|p=98}} The Japanese forces lost around 1,000 soldiers and the British forces registered 660 soldiers, mostly [[British Indian Army|British Indians]], as killed (with a similar number missing in action).{{sfn|Bussemaker|2005|p=}}

===Formation of the Republican government===
By the end of August 1945, a central Republican government had been established in Jakarta. It adopted [[Constitution of Indonesia|a constitution]] drafted during the Japanese occupation by the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence. With general elections yet to be held, a [[Central Indonesian National Committee]] (KNIP) was appointed to assist the President. Similar committees were established at provincial and regency levels.{{sfn|Kahin|1952|p=140}}

Questions of allegiance immediately arose amongst indigenous rulers. [[Central Java]]nese principalities, for example, immediately declared themselves Republican, while many ''raja'' ('rulers') of the outer islands, who had been enriched from their support of the Dutch, were less enthusiastic. Such reluctance among many outer islands was sharpened by the radical, non-aristocratic, and sometimes Islamic nature of the Java-centric Republican leadership. Support did, however, come from [[South Sulawesi]] (including the King of [[Bone state|Bone]], who still recalled battles against the Dutch from early in the century), and from [[Makassarese people|Makassarese]] and [[Bugis]] ''raja'', who supported the Republican Governor of Jakarta, a [[Menado]]nese Christian. Many [[Bali]]nese ''raja'' accepted Republican authority.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=214}}

Fearing the Dutch would attempt to re-establish their authority over Indonesia, the new Republican Government and its leaders moved quickly to strengthen the fledgling administration. Within Indonesia, the newly formed government, although enthusiastic, was fragile and focused in Java (where focused at all). It was rarely and loosely in contact with the outer islands,{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=33}} which had more Japanese troops (particularly in [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese naval]] areas), less sympathetic Japanese commanders, and fewer Republican leaders and activists.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=215}} In 14 November 1945, a [[parliamentary|parliamentary form of government]] was established and [[Sutan Sjahrir|Sjahrir]] was appointed prime minister.<ref>{{Citation |last=Pham |first=Van Thuy |title=The Political Framework of Economic Decision-making in Indonesia and Vietnam, 1945-1950 |date=2013 |journal=Lembaran Sejarah |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=31–44 |url=https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/lembaran-sejarah/article/view/23651 |access-date=2025-02-19 }}</ref>

In the week following the Japanese surrender, the Giyūgun (PETA) and Heiho groups were disbanded by the Japanese.{{efn|group=infobox|Most PETA and Heiho members did not yet know about the declaration of independence.}} Command structures and membership vital for a national army were consequently dismantled. Thus, rather than being formed from a trained, armed, and organised army, the Republican armed forces began to grow in September from usually younger, less trained groups built around charismatic leaders.{{sfn|Ricklefs|1991|p=214}} Creating a rational military structure that was obedient to central authority from such disorganisation, was one of the major problems of the revolution, a problem that remains through to contemporary times.{{sfn|Friend|2003|p=35}} In the self-created Indonesian army, Japanese-trained Indonesian officers prevailed over those trained by the Dutch.<ref>{{cite web |last=Matanasi |first=Petrik |date=5 October 2018 |editor-last=Ahsan |editor-first=Ivan Aulia |title=Pertarungan Abadi di Tubuh TNI: Eks KNIL vs Eks PETA |url=https://tirto.id/pertarungan-abadi-di-tubuh-tni-eks-knil-vs-eks-peta-c4K7 |access-date=3 December 2019 |website=tirto.id |language=id}}</ref> A thirty-year-old former school teacher, [[Sudirman]], was elected 'commander-in-chief' at the first meeting of Division Commanders in Yogyakarta on 12 November 1945.{{sfn|Reid|1974|p=78}}