Editing Indo-Aryan languages (section)

=== Theories ===
[[File:Indo-Aryan Languages Tree.png|thumb|Classification tree of the Indo-Aryan languages]]
The Indo-Aryan family as a whole is thought to represent a [[dialect continuum]], where languages are often transitional towards neighbouring varieties.{{sfnp|Masica|1991|p=25}} Because of this, the division into languages vs. dialects is in many cases somewhat arbitrary. The classification of the Indo-Aryan languages is controversial, with many transitional areas that are assigned to different branches depending on classification.{{sfnp|Masica|1991|pp=446–463}} There are concerns that a [[tree model]] is insufficient for explaining the development of New Indo-Aryan, with some scholars suggesting the [[wave model]].<ref name="kogan">{{cite journal |last1=Kogan |first1=Anton I. |title=Genealogical classification of New Indo-Aryan languages and lexicostatistics |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |date=2016 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=227–258 |doi=10.31826/jlr-2017-143-411 |s2cid=212688418 |url=https://www.jolr.ru/files/(190)jlr2016-14-3-4(227-258).pdf |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Subgroups ====
The following table of proposals is expanded from {{harvtxt|Masica|1991}} (from Hoernlé to Turner), and also includes subsequent classification proposals. The table lists only some modern Indo-Aryan languages.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; text-align: center; font-size: 80%;"
|+ Indo-Aryan subgroups
! Model !! [[Odia language|Odia]]!! [[Bengali–Assamese languages|Bengali–<br />Assamese]]!! [[Bihari languages|Bihari]]!! [[Eastern Hindi languages|E. Hindi]]!! [[Western Hindi languages|W. Hindi]]!! [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]]!! [[Gujarati languages|Gujarati]]!! [[Pahari languages|Pahari]]!! [[Eastern Punjabi language|E. Punjabi]]!! [[Lahnda|W. Punjabi]]!! [[Sindhi languages|Sindhi]]!! [[Dardic languages|Dardic]]!! [[Marathi–Konkani languages|Marathi–<br />Konkani]]!! [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]–<br />[[Maldivian language|Dhivehi]]!! [[Romani language|Romani]]
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Rudolf Hoernlé|Hoernlé]] (1880)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|E]]
| style="background:#ff9a54;"| E~W
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="3"| W
| style="background:#c97234;"| [[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|N]]
| style="background:#f60;"| W
| {{dunno}}
| style="background:#f60;"| W
| {{dunno}}
| style="background:#c93434;"| S
| {{dunno}}
| {{dunno}}
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[George Abraham Grierson|Grierson]] (−1927)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#ff9a54;"| C~E 
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="5"| [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|C]]
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji|Chatterji]] (1926)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="4"| E
| style="background:#f60;"| Midland
| style="background:#28a128;" colspan="2"| SW
| style="background:#c97234;"| N
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="3"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#2525ff;"| NW
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Grierson (1931)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#ff9a54;"| Inter.
| style="background:#f60;"| Midland
| style="background:#ff9a54;" colspan="4"| Inter.
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Sumitra Mangesh Katre|Katre]] (1968)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="6"| C
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| Dardic
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| {{dunno}}
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[R. C. Nigam|Nigam]] (1972)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#f60;"| C
| style="background:#f60;"| C (+NW)
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="2"| C
| {{dunno}}
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="3"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| N
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| {{dunno}}
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[George Cardona|Cardona]] (1974)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="2"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="4"| C
| style="background:#c93434;"| (S)W
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="5"| NW
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| (S)W
| {{dunno}}
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | Turner (−1975)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="2"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="4"| C
| style="background:#c93434;"| SW
| style="background:#c97234;"| C <small>(C.)</small>~NW <small>(W.)</small>
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="4"| NW
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| SW
| style="background:#f60;"| C
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Ernst Kausen|Kausen]] (2006)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="2"| C
| style="background:#28a128;" colspan="2"| W
| style="background:#c97234;"| N
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="3"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| Dardic
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#35d4ce;"| Romani
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Anton I. Kogan|Kogan]] (2016)
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="2"| E
| {{dunno}}
| style="background:#f60;"| C
| style="background:#f60;"| C~NW
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#c97234;"| C~NW
| style="background:#f60;"| C
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| non-IA
| style="background:#c93434;"| S
| style="background:#ec4b4b;"| Insular
| style="background:#f60;"| C
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Ethnologue]] (2020)<ref name="ethnologue23">{{Ethnologue23}}</ref>
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="3"| E
| style="background:#ff9a54;"| EC
| style="background:#f60;"| C
| style="background:#28a128;" colspan="2"| W
| style="background:#c97234;"| EC <small>(E.)</small>~W <small>(C., W.)</small>
| style="background:#28a128;" colspan="2"| W
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="2"| NW
| style="background:#c93434;" colspan="2"| S
| style="background:#28a128;"| W
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Glottolog]] (2024)<ref>{{Glottolog|indo1321|Indo-Aryan}}</ref>
| style="background:#ffcd00;" colspan="2"| E
| style="background:#f60;" colspan="5"| Midland
| style="background:#c97234;"| N
| style="background:#2525ff;" colspan="3"| NW
| style="background:#ff81e6;"| Dardic
| style="background:#c93434;"| S
| style="background:#ec4b4b;"| Dhivehi-Sinhala
| style="background:#f60;"| Midland
|}

[[Anton I. Kogan]], in 2016, conducted a [[lexicostatistical]] study of the New Indo-Aryan languages based on a 100-word [[Swadesh list]], using techniques developed by the glottochronologist and comparative linguist [[Sergei Starostin]].<ref name="kogan"/> That grouping system is notable for Kogan's exclusion of Dardic from Indo-Aryan on the basis of his previous studies showing low lexical similarity to Indo-Aryan (43.5%) and negligible difference with similarity to Iranian (39.3%).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kogan |first1=Anton I. |title=Dardskie yazyki. Geneticheskaya kharakteristika |trans-title=Dardic language. Genetic characteristic |date=2005 |publisher=Vostochnaya literatura |location=Moskva |language=ru}}</ref> He also calculated Sinhala–Dhivehi to be the most divergent Indo-Aryan branch. Nevertheless, the modern consensus of Indo-Aryan linguists tends towards the inclusion of Dardic based on morphological and grammatical features.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}

==== Inner–Outer hypothesis ====
{{Main|Inner–Outer hypothesis}}
The '''Inner–Outer hypothesis''' argues for a core and periphery of Indo-Aryan languages, with Outer Indo-Aryan (generally including Eastern and Southern Indo-Aryan, and sometimes Northwestern Indo-Aryan, [[Dardic languages|Dardic]] and [[Pahari language|Pahari]]) representing an older stratum of Old Indo-Aryan that has been mixed to varying degrees with the newer stratum that is Inner Indo-Aryan. It is a contentious proposal with a long history, with varying degrees of claimed phonological and morphological evidence. Since its proposal by [[Rudolf Hoernlé]] in 1880 and refinement by [[George Abraham Grierson|George Grierson]] it has undergone numerous revisions and a great deal of debate, with the most recent iteration by [[Franklin Southworth]] and [[Claus Peter Zoller]] based on robust linguistic evidence (particularly an Outer past tense in ''-l-''). Some of the theory's sceptics include [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] and [[Colin P. Masica]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}}