Editing Indigenous peoples in Brazil (section)

===Origins===
[[File:Parque Indígena do Xingu.jpg|thumb|right|[[Xingu peoples|Xingu]], an [[Indigenous territory (Brazil)|Indigenous territory of Brazil]]]]
Questions about the original [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|settlement of the Americas]] have led to various hypothetical models. The origins of these Indigenous peoples remain a matter of debate among [[Archaeology|archaeologists]].<ref name="AshRobinson2011">{{cite book|author1=Patricia J. Ash|author2=David J. Robinson|title=The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JUlSYsyC-NQC&pg=PT289|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-96424-7|page=289}}</ref>

====Migration into the continents====
[[Anthropology|Anthropological]] and [[Genetics|genetic]] evidence suggests that most Amerindian people descended from migrants from [[Siberia]] and [[Mongolia]] who entered the Americas across the [[Bering Strait]] and along the western coast of North America in at least three separate waves. In Brazil, most native tribes living in the land by 1500 are thought to be descended from the first wave of Siberian migrants, who are believed to have crossed the [[Bering Land Bridge]] at the end of the last Ice Age, between 13,000 and 17,000 years ago. This initial migration would have taken some time to reach present-day Brazil, likely entering the [[Amazon River]] basin from the Northwest. The second and third migratory waves from Siberia, which are thought to have led to the [[Athabaskan]], [[Aleut peoples|Aleut]], [[Inuit]], and [[Yupik peoples|Yupik people]], apparently did not reach farther than the southern [[United States]] and [[Canada]], respectively.<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008">{{cite book|author1=Linda S. Cordell|author2=Kent Lightfoot|author3=Francis McManamon|author4=George Milner|title=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=RA3-PA249|volume=4|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-02189-3|page=3}}</ref>

====Genetic studies====
{{Further| Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas}}
[[File:Indios apiaka no rio Arinos.jpg|thumb|[[Apiacá people]], painted by [[Hércules Florence]], 1827]]

===== Y-chromosome DNA =====
An analysis of [[Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]] [[Y-chromosome DNA]] reveals specific clustering within much of the South American population. The [[Microsatellite (genetics)|micro-satellite]] diversity and distributions of Y-chromosome lineages specific to South America suggest that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.<ref name=subclades>{{cite web
 |url=http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc=.jpg?download=1
 |title=Summary of knowledge on the subclades of Haplogroup Q
 |publisher=Genebase Systems
 |year=2009
 |access-date=17 December 2010
 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510204204/http://64.40.115.138/file/lu/6/52235/NTIyMzV9K3szNTc2Nzc%3D.jpg?download=1
 |archive-date=10 May 2011
}}</ref>

===== Autosomal DNA =====
According to a 2012 [[autosomal DNA]] genetic study,<ref name="nature.com">{{cite journal|title=Reconstructing Native American population history| volume=488|issue=7411|doi=10.1038/nature11258|journal=Nature|pages=370–374|pmc=3615710|bibcode=2012Natur.488..370R|pmid=22801491|year=2012 | last1 = Reich | first1 = D | last2 = Patterson | first2 = N | last3 = Campbell | first3 = D | last4 = Tandon | first4 = A | last5 = Mazieres | first5 = S | last6 = Ray | first6 = N | last7 = Parra | first7 = MV | last8 = Rojas | first8 = W | last9 = Duque | first9 = C }}</ref> Native Americans descend from at least three main migrant waves from Siberia. Most of their ancestry traces back to a single ancestral population, referred to as the 'First Americans'. However, [[Inuit languages|Inuit-speaking]] populations from the [[Arctic]] inherited nearly half of their ancestry from a second Siberian migrant wave, while [[Na-dene]] speakers inherited about one-tenth of their ancestry from a third migrant wave. The initial settlement of the Americas was followed by a rapid expansion southward along the coast, with limited gene flow later, especially in [[South America]]. An exception to this is the [[Chibcha]] speakers, whose ancestry includes contributions from both North and South America.<ref name="nature.com"/>

===== mtDNA =====
[[File:Menina da etnia Terena.jpg|thumb|[[Terena people|Terena]] girl at the closing ceremony of the Indigenous Peoples Games]]
Another study, focused on mitochondrial DNA ([[mtDNA]]), which is inherited only through the maternal line,<ref name="plosone.org">{{cite journal |last1=Tamm |first1=Erika |last2=Kivisild |first2=Toomas |last3=Reidla |first3=Maere |last4=Metspalu |first4=Mait |last5=Smith |first5=David Glenn |last6=Mulligan |first6=Connie J. |last7=Bravi |first7=Claudio M. |last8=Rickards |first8=Olga |last9=Martinez-Labarga |first9=Cristina |last10=Khusnutdinova |first10=Elsa K. |last11=Fedorova |first11=Sardana A. |last12=Golubenko |first12=Maria V. |last13=Stepanov |first13=Vadim A. |last14=Gubina |first14=Marina A. |last15=Zhadanov |first15=Sergey I. |last16=Ossipova |first16=Ludmila P. |last17=Damba |first17=Larisa |last18=Voevoda |first18=Mikhail I. |last19=Dipierri |first19=Jose E. |last20=Villems |first20=Richard |last21=Malhi |first21=Ripan S. |last22=Carter |first22=Dee |title=Beringian Standstill and Spread of Native American Founders |journal=PLOS ONE|date=5 September 2007 |volume=2 |issue=9 |pages=e829 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000829 |pmid=17786201 |pmc=1952074 |bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..829T|doi-access=free }}</ref> revealed that the maternal ancestry of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas traces back to a few founding lineages from Siberia, likely arriving via the [[Bering Strait]]. According to this study, the ancestors of Native Americans likely remained near the [[Bering Strait]] for a time before rapidly spreading throughout the Americas and eventually reaching  [[South America]]. A 2016 study on mtDNA lineages found that "a small population entered the Americas via a coastal route around 16,000 years ago, following a period of isolation in eastern [[Beringia]] for approximately 2,400 to 9,000 years after separating from eastern Siberian populations. After spreading rapidly throughout the Americas, limited gene flow in South America resulted in a distinct [[phylogeographic]] structure of populations, which persisted over time. All ancient [[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|mitochondrial lineages]] detected in this study were absent from modern data sets, suggesting a high extinction rate. To investigate this further, we applied a novel principal components multiple logistic regression test to Bayesian serial coalescent simulations. The analysis supported a scenario in which European colonization caused a substantial loss of pre-Columbian lineages."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Llamas |first1=Bastien |last2=Fehren-Schmitz |first2=Lars |last3=Valverde |first3=Guido |last4=Soubrier |first4=Julien |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Rohland |first6=Nadin |last7=Nordenfelt |first7=Susanne |last8=Valdiosera |first8=Cristina |last9=Richards |first9=Stephen M. |last10=Rohrlach |first10=Adam |last11=Romero |first11=Maria Inés Barreto |last12=Espinoza |first12=Isabel Flores |last13=Cagigao |first13=Elsa Tomasto |last14=Jiménez |first14=Lucía Watson |last15=Makowski |first15=Krzysztof |last16=Reyna |first16=Ilán Santiago Leboreiro |last17=Lory |first17=Josefina Mansilla |last18=Torrez |first18=Julio Alejandro Ballivián |last19=Rivera |first19=Mario A. |last20=Burger |first20=Richard L. |last21=Ceruti |first21=Maria Constanza |last22=Reinhard |first22=Johan |last23=Wells |first23=R. Spencer |last24=Politis |first24=Gustavo |last25=Santoro |first25=Calogero M. |last26=Standen |first26=Vivien G. |last27=Smith |first27=Colin |last28=Reich |first28=David |last29=Ho |first29=Simon Y. W. |last30=Cooper |first30=Alan |last31=Haak |first31=Wolfgang |title=Ancient mitochondrial DNA provides high-resolution time scale of the peopling of the Americas |journal=Science Advances |date=1 April 2016 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=e1501385 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1501385 |pmid=27051878 |pmc=4820370 |bibcode=2016SciA....2E1385L }}</ref>

===== Linguistic comparison with Siberia =====

Linguistic studies have supported genetic findings, revealing ancient patterns between the languages spoken in [[Siberia]] and those in the Americas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dediu |first1=Dan |last2=Levinson |first2=Stephen C. |title=Abstract Profiles of Structural Stability Point to Universal Tendencies, Family-Specific Factors, and Ancient Connections between Languages |journal=PLOS ONE|date=20 September 2012 |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=e45198 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0045198 |pmid=23028843 |pmc=3447929 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...745198D |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===== The Oceanic component in the Amazon region =====

Two 2015 autosomal DNA genetic studies confirmed the Siberian origins of the Native peoples of the Americas. However, an ancient signal of shared ancestry with the [[Indigenous peoples of Oceania|Indigenous peoples of Australia and Melanesia]] was detected among the Native populations of the [[Amazon region]]. This migration from [[Siberia]] is estimated to have occurred around 23,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Genomic evidence for the Pleistocene and recent population history of Native Americans|journal=Science|volume=349|issue=6250|pages=aab3884| author=Raghavan |date=21 August 2015|display-authors=etal|doi=10.1126/science.aab3884|pmc=4733658 |pmid=26198033}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skoglund |first1=P |last2=Mallick |first2=S |last3=Bortolini |first3=MC |last4=Chennagiri |first4=N |last5=Hünemeier |first5=T |last6=Petzl-Erler |first6=ML |author-link6=Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler |last7=Salzano |first7=FM |last8=Patterson |first8=N |last9=Reich |first9=D |date=21 July 2015 |title=Genetic evidence for two founding populations of the Americas |journal=Nature |volume=525 |issue=7567 |pages=104–8 |bibcode=2015Natur.525..104S |doi=10.1038/nature14895 |pmc=4982469 |pmid=26196601}}</ref><ref name="Skoglund2016">{{cite journal|last1= Skoglund|first1= P.|last2= Reich|first2= D.|title=A genomic view of the peopling of the Americas|journal= Current Opinion in Genetics & Development|volume= 41|year= 2016|pages= 27–35|doi= 10.1016/j.gde.2016.06.016|pmc= 5161672|pmid=27507099}}</ref>

====Archaeological remains====
[[File:Índios da etnia Terena2.jpg|thumb|right|Terena people]]
Brazilian native peoples, unlike those in [[Mesoamerica]] and the [[Andean civilizations]], did not keep written records or erect stone monuments. The humid climate and acidic soil have destroyed almost all traces of their material culture, including [[wood]] and [[bone]]s. Therefore, what is known about the region's history before 1500 has been inferred and reconstructed from limited archaeological evidence, such as [[Indigenous ceramics of the Americas|ceramics]] and stone [[arrowhead]]s.

The most conspicuous remains of these societies are vast mounds of discarded [[shellfish]], known as ''sambaquis'', found at some coastal sites that were continuously inhabited for more than 5,000 years. Additionally, substantial "black earth" (''[[terra preta]]'') deposits in several places along the Amazon are believed to be ancient garbage dumps ([[midden]]s). Recent excavations of these deposits in the middle and upper Amazon have uncovered remains of massive settlements, containing tens of thousands of homes, indicating a complex social and economic structure.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Fernandes |first1=Cássia |last2=Farias |first2=Orlando |date=2001-01-22 |title=Materiais indígenas são levados do Amazonas |url=http://www.amazonia.org.br/noticias/print.cfm?id=2691 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706161105/http://www.amazonia.org.br/noticias/print.cfm?id=2691 |archive-date=2011-07-06 |access-date= |website=amazonia.org.br |place=[[Manaus]]}}</ref>

Studies of the wear patterns of precontact inhabitants of coastal Brazil found that the surfaces of [[anterior teeth]] facing the tongue were more worn than those facing the lips. Researchers believe this wear was caused by using teeth to peel and shred abrasive [[plants]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Food |year=2000 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeworldhi01kipl |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeworldhi01kipl/page/n56 19]}}</ref>

====Marajoara culture====
{{Main|Marajoara culture}}
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Burian urn, AD 1000-1250, Marajoara culture - AMNH - DSC06177 b.jpg|Burial urn
Cultura Marajoara - Cerâmica MN 05.jpg|Marajoara bowl
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Plate MET 2005.461 a.jpg|Marajoara plate
Funerary vessel Collection H Law 172 n1.jpg|Funerary urn
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The [[Marajoara culture]] flourished on [[Marajó|Marajó island]] at the mouth of the [[Amazon River]].<ref name=Mann>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Charles C. |author-link=Charles C. Mann |title=1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus |orig-year=2005 |year=2006 |publisher=Vintage Books |pages=[https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/326 326–333] |isbn=978-1-4000-3205-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/326 }}</ref> Archaeologists have uncovered sophisticated [[pottery]] in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, elaborately painted, and incised with representations of plants and animals. This discovery provided the first evidence of a complex society on Marajó. Further evidence of [[mound building]] suggests that well-populated, complex, and sophisticated settlements developed on the island, as only such settlements were believed capable of undertaking extensive projects like major earthworks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Grann|first=David|title=The Lost City of Z: A Tale of Deadly Obsession in the Amazon|page=[https://archive.org/details/lostcityofztaleo00gran/page/315 315]|year=2009|publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-51353-1|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/lostcityofztaleo00gran/page/315}}</ref>

The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been subjects of dispute. In the 1950s, American archaeologist [[Betty Meggers]], in some of her earliest research, suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America, who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains.

In the 1980s, American archaeologist [[Anna Curtenius Roosevelt]] led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society that constructed the mounds originated on the island itself.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roosevelt|first=Anna C.|title=Moundbuilders of the Amazon: Geophysical Archaeology on Marajó Island, Brazil|publisher= Academic Press |year= 1991 |isbn=978-0-125-95348-1}}</ref>

The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed [[social stratification]] and supported a [[population]] as large as 100,000 people.<ref name="Mann" /> The Native Americans of the Amazon rainforest may have used their method of developing and working in [[terra preta]] to make the land suitable for the large-scale [[agriculture]] needed to support large populations and complex social formations, such as [[chiefdoms]].<ref name="Mann" />

====Xinguano civilisation====
The [[Xingu peoples]] built large settlements connected by roads and bridges, often featuring moats. Their development peaked between 13th and 17th century, with their population reaching into the tens of thousands.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wren |first1=Kathleen |title=Lost cities of the Amazon revealed |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna3077413 |work=NBC News |date=2 December 2003 }}</ref>