Editing Homs (section)

==History==
{{for timeline}}

For approximately 2,000 years, Homs has served as a key agricultural market, production site and trade center for the villages of northern Syria. It has also provided security services to the [[hinterland]] of Syria, protecting it from invading forces.<ref name="Dumper1"/> Excavations at the [[Citadel of Homs]] indicate that the earliest settlement at the site dates back to around 2300 BCE. Biblical scholars have identified the city with [[Hamath-zobah]] of [[Zobah]] mentioned in the [[Bible]].<ref name="Dumper1"/><ref name="Cook"/> In 1274 BCE,<ref>around "Year 5 III Shemu day 9" of Ramesses II's reign (BAR III, p. 317) or more precisely: 12 May 1274 BCE based on Ramesses' commonly accepted accession date in 1279 BC.</ref> a [[Battle of Kadesh|battle]] took place between the forces of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|Egyptian Empire]] under [[Ramesses II]] and the [[Hittites|Hittite Empire]] under [[Muwatalli II]] at the city of [[Kadesh (Syria)|Kadesh]] on the [[Orontes River]] near Homs.<ref>Kitchen, K.A, "Ramesside Inscriptions", Volume 2, Blackwell Publishing Limited, 1996, pp. 16–17</ref> It was possibly the largest [[chariot]] battle ever fought, involving perhaps 5,000–6,000 chariots.<ref>Healy, 1993, p. 22</ref><ref>Healy, 1993, p. 39</ref>

===Emesene dynasty and Roman rule{{anchor|Emesani dynasty and Roman rule}}===
{{Redirect|Emesa|the genus of thread-legged bug|Emesa (bug)}}
{{see also|Royal family of Emesa|Elagabalus (deity)}}
[[Strabo]] only mentioned [[Al-Rastan|Arethusa]] in his ''[[Geographica|Geography]]'', as a "very strong place" of the Arab Sampsigeramos and of his son Iamblikhos, "phylarchs" of the Emesene, who had allied themselves to Q. Caecilius Bassus against Caesar in 47 BC; the translators above cited have thought strange Strabo's not saying a word about Emesa.<ref name="Strabon, p. 209, Henri Seyrig, p. 187">{{harvnb|Strabon|1819|p=209}}; {{harvnb|Seyrig|1952|p=187}}.</ref> Claims have been made that Emesa was founded by [[Seleucus I Nicator]] who established the [[Seleucid Empire]] upon the death of [[Alexander the Great]]. However, according to [[Henri Seyrig]], Emesa does not seem to have received any Greek colony and the authors' complete silence makes one think that it did not increase its visibility under the Seleucid kings.<ref>{{harvnb|Seyrig|1952|p=186}}.</ref> According to Henri Seyrig, it even seems that [[Posidonius]], to whom Strabo probably referred concerning the Emesenes' phylarchs' alliance with Q. Caecilius Bassus, regarded the Emesenes as a simple tribe, governed by its sheikhs, and still devoid of a real urban existence;<ref>{{harvnb|Seyrig|1952|p=187}}.</ref>{{efn|According to J. L. Whitaker, "Strabo seems to consider these Emesani to be among the tribes of tent dwellers (''skénitai'') who dwelt in the region south of Apamea".<ref name="Dumper1"/>}} according to Maamoun Abdulkarim, occupation of the citadel's tell does not confirm the existence of a real urban center in the plain before the Roman period and recent excavations have refuted the existence of vestiges preceding the Roman period under the actual town's outline, and the existence of an Arab Emesene dynasty in the region, probably located in Arethusa, attests to the secondary nature of this area during the Hellenistic period.<ref>{{harvnb|Abdulkarim}}.</ref> Upon [[Pompey]]'s submission of the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid state of Syria]] to the [[Roman Republic]] in 64 BCE, the [[Royal Family of Emesa|Emesene dynasty]] were confirmed in their rule as [[Client state|client kings]] of the Romans for aiding their troops in various wars. At its greatest extent, the Arab kingdom's boundaries extended from the [[Bekaa Valley]] in the west to the border with [[Palmyra]] in the east, and from [[Yabroud|Yabrud]] in the south to [[al-Rastan]] (Arethusa) in the north. A marker at the [[Palmyra|Palmyrene]]'s southwestern border was found in 1936 by [[Daniel Schlumberger]] at [[Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi]], dating from the reign of [[Hadrian]] or one of his successors, which marked the boundary between Palmyrene and Emesene<ref>Schlumberger 1939, pp. 43, 66.</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|date=October 2020}}{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 284]}}{{efn|Inscription reproduced:<ref>Schlumberger 1939, p. 64.</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|date=October 2020}}<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''Fin''[''es'']<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''inteṛ''<br>''Hadriano''[''s'']<br>''Palmyrenos''<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''et''<br>[''He'']''ṃesenos''}} ([[Pliny the Elder]] asserted that both territories were contiguous);{{sfn|Seyrig|1952|pp=189–190}} this boundary probably ran northwards to Khirbet al-Bilaas on [[Jabal al-Bilas]] where another marker, laid by Roman governor [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus Silanus|Silanus]], has been found, {{convert|75|km}} northwest of Palmyra, probably marking a boundary with the territory of [[Hama|Epiphania]].{{sfn|Seyrig|1952|p=190}}{{sfn|Edwell|2008|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=DQgmOZlsEWcC&pg=PA41 41]}} The kingdom of [[Sampsiceramus I]], was the first of Rome's Arab clients on the desert fringes.<ref name="Ball">Ball, 2000, pp. 34–35.</ref>

[[File:Emesa helmet (profile).jpg|thumb|The [[Emesa helmet]] found in the necropolis of [[Tell Abu Sabun]]. Its owner was likely buried in the first half of the 1st century AD<ref>{{harvnb|Seyrig|1952|p=250}}.</ref>]]
[[File:Tomb of Sampsigeramus 1907 2.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Tomb of Sampsigeramus]], photographed 1907; it may have been built in 78–79<ref>{{harvnb|Chad|1972|p=92}}.</ref> by a relative of the [[Emesene dynasty]]<ref>{{harvnb|Millar|1993|p=84}}.</ref>]]
The city of Emesa grew to prominence after the new-found wealth of the Emesene dynasty, governed first by one of the sons of Sampsiceramus I, [[Iamblichus (phylarch)|Iamblichus I]] who made it the kingdom's capital.<ref name="Ball"/> The Emesene proved their loyalty to Rome once more when they aided Gaius [[Julius Caesar]] in his siege of [[Alexandria]] in 48 BC, by sending him army detachments. Subsequently, they became embroiled in the [[Roman Civil War]] between the rebelling [[Mark Antony]] and the pro-Caesar [[Augustus|Octavian]]. Iamblichus I took the side of Octavian, and so upon encouragement from Antony, Iamblichus's brother [[Alexander (brother of Iamblichus I)|Alexander]] usurped the throne and put Iamblichus I to death in 31 BCE. Octavian's forces prevailed in the war, however, and as a result the kingdom's throne was reverted to [[Iamblichus II]] (the son of Iamblichus I) after Alexander was executed for treason. It was in 32 that [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] and the [[Beqaa Valley]] came under the kingdom's control.<ref name="Ball"/> Relations with the Roman government grew closer when [[Sohaemus of Emesa|King Sohaemus]] inherited the kingship. Under him, Emesa sent the Roman military a regular levy of archers and assisted them in their [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|siege of Jerusalem]] in 70. Sohaemus had died in 73. According to [[Maurice Sartre]], the dynasty was very likely deprived of its kingdom, which was annexed to the [[Roman province of Syria]], between 72 and the date of the construction of the [[Tomb of Sampsigeramus]] (78–79).<ref name="Maurice Sartre, D'Alexandre à Zénobie : Histoire du Levant antique">{{harvnb|Sartre|2001}}.</ref>

[[File:Monnaie frappée en la cité d'Emese.jpg|thumb|Coin minted by Macrinus in Emesa]]
[[File:Bronze-Uranius Antoninus-Elagabal stone-SGI 4414.jpg|thumb|The Emesa temple to the sun god El-Gabal, with the holy stone, on the reverse of this bronze coin by [[Roman usurper]] [[Uranius|Uranius Antoninus]]]] 
Under the Romans, Emesa began to show attributes of a Greek [[city-state]] and traces of Roman town planning still remain. Its transformation into a major city was completed under the reign of Emperor [[Antoninus Pius]] (138–161) when Emesa began to [[Mint (coin)#Ancient mints|mint coins]].<ref name="Dumper1"/> By the 3rd century, it grew prosperous and well integrated into the Roman Orient. This was partly due to the marriage of Emperor Lucius [[Septimius Severus]] to a woman from a family of notables based in Emesa. According to a text of [[Ulpian]] (''Digest'' 50.15.1.4) and another one of [[Paul (jurist)|Paul]] (''Digest'' 50.15.8.6), [[Caracalla]] and [[Elagabalus]] each promoted Emesa to the rank of a [[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]] and granted ''[[ius Italicum]]'' to it; [[Eugène Albertini]] has hypothesized about a revocation by [[Macrinus]] of the privileges given by Caracalla and a reestablishment of those by Elagabalus.<ref>{{harvnb|Albertini|1934|pp=24–26}}.</ref> [[Elagabalus]] served as the high priest at the Temple of [[Elagabalus (deity)|El-Gebal]], the local Arab sun god. He brought the image of this god, a conical black stone ([[Baetyl]]), to the [[Elagabalium]] in Rome.<ref name="Dumper"/><ref>Herodian, ''Roman History'', [https://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre503.html#3_5 V.3.5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822131726/https://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodian/hre503.html#3_5 |date=22 August 2007 }}</ref>

Emesa also grew wealthy because it formed a link in the eastern trade funnelled through [[Palmyra]]; however, this dependence also caused the city's downfall when Palmyra sank to insignificance in the 4th century. Nonetheless, Emesa at this time had grown to rank with the important cities of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Sidon]], [[Beirut]], and [[Damascus]]. It also continued to retain local significance, because it was the market center for the surrounding villages. The city remained a strong center of paganism, because of the Temple of El-Gabal. After one of his victories over [[Zenobia]], Emperor [[Aurelian]] visited the city to pay thanks to the deity.<ref name="Dumper"/>

[[File:Vase d'Émèse (Louvre, Bj 1895).jpg|thumb|left|Silver vase from Emesa, decorated with busts of biblical figures (end of 6th century or beginning of 7th). [[Louvre Museum]]]]
[[File:Frescos in Saint Elian Church - Hims, Syria.jpg|thumb|Some frescoes inside the [[Church of Saint Elian]] date back to the 6th century (not the ones pictured)]]
Due to the strength of the pagan sun cult in Emesa, Christians initially did not settle in the city. [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] writes that Silvanus, the city's first bishop, had no jurisdiction over the city, but the surrounding villages. He was executed by [[Julian the Apostate|Emperor Julian]] and succeeded by Bishop Antonius—the first bishop to settle Emesa.<ref>Herbermann, 1913, p. 403.</ref> By the 5th century, [[Christianity]] was well established under the [[Byzantine Empire]]; however, few ancient Christian inscriptions exist in Homs today.<ref name="Dumper"/> Under the Byzantines, the city became an important center for [[Eastern Christianity]].<ref name="Carter2008-2"/> Initially a [[diocese]], Homs was given the status of [[ecclesiastical metropolis]] after the discovery of [[John the Baptist]]'s head in a nearby cave in 452.<ref name="Dumper"/> [[Nemesius]], who lived in the fourth or early fifth century AD, was the bishop of Emesa.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DN%3Aentry+group%3D3%3Aentry%3Dnemesius-harpers |title=Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Nemesius |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926214617/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0062:alphabetic+letter%3DN:entry+group%3D3:entry%3Dnemesius-harpers |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]], Emesa fell in 613 to [[Shahrbaraz]] and was in Sasanian hands until near the end of the war.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crawford |first1=Peter |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=9781473828650 |pages=42–43 |language=en}}</ref>

===Arab caliphates and dynasties===
{{Further|Caliphate|Rashidun Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate|Ikhshidids|Fatimids|Mirdasid dynasty}}
Prior to the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]], [[tribes of Arabia]], particularly the [[Banu Kalb]], settled around Emesa, ensuring its position as an important center for the [[Qays and Yaman tribes]]. The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Heraclius]] abandoned the city, which served as his headquarters,<ref>Kennedy, 2007, p. 74</ref> after his army's defeat by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] under [[Umar]] during the [[Battle of the Yarmuk]] (now the [[Jordan–Syria border]]).

In 637 CE, the [[Rashidun army]], led by [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], [[siege of Emesa|captured Emesa peacefully]] because its inhabitants agreed to pay a substantial ransom of 71,000 to 170,000 [[dinar]]s.<ref name="Dumper">Dumper, 2007, p. 172.</ref><ref>Mannheim, 2001, p. 205.</ref><ref name="Hamawi"/> Caliph Umar established Homs as the capital of [[Jund Hims]], a district of the province of [[Bilad al-Sham]], encompassing the towns of [[Latakia]], [[Jableh]], and [[Tartus]] along the coast, [[Palmyra]] in the [[Syrian Desert]] and the territory in between, including the town of [[Hama]].<ref>le Strange, 1890, p. 25.</ref> Homs was likely the first city in Syria to have a substantial Muslim population.<ref>Kennedy, 2007, p. 86.</ref>

In 638, Heraclius sought help from the Christian Arab tribes in [[Upper Mesopotamia]], mainly from [[Circesium]] and [[Hit, Iraq|Hīt]], and they mustered a large army and [[Siege of Emesa (638)|besieged Emesa]]. However, the siege was a failure, as the coalition forces lost heart and abandoned the city as at the time [[Iyad ibn Ghanm]] invaded their homeland in an effort to counter their act.<ref name="al Bidayah wa Nihayah Ibn Kathir">{{cite web |last1=Ibn Kathir |first1=Abu al-Fiḍā ‘Imād Ad-Din Ismā‘īl |title=Al Bidayah wa Nihayah |url=https://waqfeya.net/book.php?bid=11131 |website=Waqfeya |access-date=9 October 2021 |archive-date=9 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009004416/https://waqfeya.net/book.php?bid=11131 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Zakkar, 1971">{{cite book |last1=Zakkar |first1=Suhayl |title=The Emirate of Aleppo: 1004–1094 |date=1971 |publisher=Dar al-Amanah |location=Aleppo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbltAAAAMAAJ |access-date=13 October 2021 |archive-date=23 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923075042/https://books.google.com/books?id=sbltAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Crone">{{Slaves on Horses}}</ref>

The Muslims transformed half of St. John's Church into the city's [[Friday mosque]] ([[Great Mosque of al-Nuri, Homs|Great Mosque of al-Nuri]]) and Homs soon became a centre of Islamic piety since some 500 [[companions of Muhammad]] ({{langx|ar|اَلصَّحَابَةُ|al-ṣaḥāba}}) settled there after its conquest.<ref name="Dumper"/> The tombs of Khalid ibn al-Walid, his son [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid|Abd al-Rahman]], and the son of Umar [[Ubayd Allah ibn Umar|Ubayd Allah]], are located in the city.<ref>[[Ibn Jubair]] quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 355.</ref>

During the [[First Fitna]], the conflict between the [[Umayyad dynasty]] and their partisans and [[Ali]] and his partisans, the inhabitants of Homs allied themselves with Ali. When he was defeated, the Umayyad caliph [[Mu'awiya I|Mu'awiya]] hived the northern half of Jund Hims to form a separate district, [[Jund Qinnasrin]], apparently as punishment.<ref name="Dumper"/> Ali's oratory (''mashhad 'Ali'') was located in the city, and Islamic tradition claims his fingerprints are engraved on it.<ref name="Hamawi">[[Yaqut al-Hamawi]] quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 356.</ref>

Despite repression by the Umayyads, Homs remained a center of [[Shia Islam]] for a while longer. As a stronghold of the Banu Kalb, a Yamani tribe, the city became heavily involved in the [[Qays–Yaman rivalry]]. The last Umayyad caliph, [[Marwan II]], enjoyed the support of the Qays and subsequently razed the city walls in response to a rebellion by the Banu Kalb.<ref name="Dumper"/>

[[File:Interior - Al-Nuri Mosque - Hims, Syria.jpg|thumb|left|The interior of the [[Great Mosque of al-Nuri, Homs|Great Mosque of al-Nuri]]]]

In 750, the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] wrested control of Syria, including Homs, from the Umayyads, and the Arab tribes revolted. Despite the prosperity Homs experienced during this era, Abbasid rule was generally not welcomed nevertheless. During and after the reign of Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] (796–809), the Abbasid authorities sent numerous punitive expeditions against Homs.<ref name="Dumper"/> Under the reign of Caliph [[al-Mutawakkil]], in October 855, [[Homs revolts (854–855)|the Christian population revolted]] in response to [[jizya|additional taxation]]. The caliph put down the revolt by expelling Christians from the city, burning down their churches and executing members of their leadership.<ref>Gil, 1997, pp. 296–97.</ref>

With Abbasid rule over the Caliphate weakening in the mid-9th century, Homs became sought after by rebel dynasties contending for control of Syria due to the city's strategic position. Initially, the [[Egypt]]-based [[Tulunids]] came into control of it, but they were forced out by the [[Aleppo]]-based [[Hamdanid dynasty|Hamdanids]], who were briefly succeeded by the [[Qarmatians]],<ref name="Dumper"/> after the latter's Turkish rebel ally [[Alptakin]] invaded northern Syria and established Homs as his base.<ref>Gil, 1997, p. 343.</ref>

In 891, Muslim geographer [[al-Yaqubi]] noted that Homs was situated along a broad river which served as a source of drinking water for the inhabitants.<ref name="le Strange2"/> It was one of the largest cities in Syria and had several smaller districts surrounding it. In 944 the Hamdanids took definitive control of the city, dominating it until 1016.<ref name="Dumper"/> Arab geographer [[al-Mas'udi]] claimed in the early 10th century that Homs was "noted for the personal beauty of its inhabitants."<ref name="le Strange2">le Strange, 1890, p. 353.</ref> In 985, [[al-Maqdisi]] noted that Homs was the largest city in all of Syria, but it had suffered "great misfortunes" and was "threatened with ruin." He stated that when the city was conquered by the Muslims they turned half of its church into a mosque.<ref>[[al-Maqdisi]] quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 354.</ref>

For around thirty years during the 10th century, Homs was raided by the Byzantines led by [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] in October 968, and its inhabitants were subject to slaughter and plunder while the Great Mosque of al-Nuri was briefly restored as a church.{{sfn|Bosworth|2007|p=157}} In 974–975, [[John I Tzimiskes]] managed to control the city during [[Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes|his Syrian campaigns]].{{sfn|Romane|2015|p=73}}

Throughout most of the 11th century, the Byzantine raids receded greatly and the [[Mirdasid dynasty|Mirdasids]] of the [[Banu Kilab]] tribe ruled over Homs, replacing the Hamdanids. Inclined towards Shia Islam, they did not oppose the [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili Shi'i]] [[Fatimid Caliphate]] of Egypt, which was aiming to extend its rule into northern Syria and [[Iraq]] at the time. This precipitated a [[Sunni Muslim]] reaction led by the [[Saljuqid Turks]], who occupied Homs under the leadership of [[Aq Sunqur al-Hajib]] in 1090.<ref name="Dumper"/>

===Saljuqid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk rule===
{{Further|Abbasid dynasty|Seljuk Sultanate|Ayyubids|Mamluk Sultanate}}
The [[First Crusade]] was launched in 1096, and in 1098, the Crusaders captured [[Antioch]] to the northwest, looted [[Ma'arrat al-Nu'man]], and finally besieged Homs itself. Although they managed to cut the city off from its main port [[Tartus]], they failed in taking the city. Soon after, Homs came under the control of the Saljuqid ruler of [[Damascus]], [[Duqaq (Seljuk ruler of Damascus)|Duqaq]], who transformed it into a large, fortified camp and key fortress effectively preventing the Crusaders from penetrating deeper into Muslim territory. Immune from attack, Homs became a point where the Muslims could marshal their forces and launch raids against Crusader holdings along the Mediterranean coast.<ref name="Dumper"/> In the early 12th century, the Saljuqids engaged in internal fighting, during which Homs was often a prize. In 1149 the [[Mosul]]-based [[Zangid]]s under [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur al-Din]] captured the city.<ref name="Dumper2">Dumper, 2007, p. 173.</ref>

Muslim geographer [[al-Idrisi]] noted in 1154 that Homs was populous, had paved streets, possessed one of the largest mosques in Syria, contained open markets, and was frequented by travellers attracted to its "products and rarities of all kinds." He also reported that its residents were "pleasant; living with them is easy, and their manners are agreeable. The women are beautiful and are celebrated for their fine skin."<ref>le Strange, 1890, p. 354.</ref> A series of earthquakes in 1157 inflicted heavy damage upon Homs and its fortress, then in 1170, a minor quake finished off the latter. However, because of its strategic importance, being opposite of the Crusader [[County of Tripoli]], the city and its fortifications were soon restored. In 1164, Nur al-Din awarded Homs to [[Asad ad-Din Shirkuh]] as a [[Iqta'|''iqtâ''']], but reclaimed it five years later following Shirkuh's death. The latter's nephew, [[Saladin]], occupied Homs in early December 1174, but the garrison at the citadel resisted.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=61}} He later departed for Aleppo, and left a small army in Homs' lower town.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=98}} The defenders of the citadel offered to set their Christian prisoners free, if [[Raymond III, Count of Tripoli]] provided military assistance for them.{{sfn|Lewis|2017|p=239}} [[William of Tyre]] later emphasized that the commanders of the crusader army doubted if the defenders of the Homs citadel actually wanted to release their prisoners.{{sfn|Lewis|2017|p=240}} Saladin returned to Homs soon after he was informed about the negotiations between the crusaders and the garrison.{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=99}} Instead of attacking him, the crusader army retreated to Krak des Chevaliers;{{sfn|Hamilton|2000|p=99}} this enabled Saladin to capture the citadel on 17 March 1175.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=62}} In 1179, after reorganising his territories in northern Syria, Saladin restored Homs to his [[Ayyubid dynasty]]. Shirkuh's descendants retained Homs for nearly a century until 1262 with the death of [[al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs|al-Ashraf Musa]]. In 1225, Arab geographer [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]] mentioned that Homs was large, celebrated and walled, having a strongly fortified castle on its southern hill.<ref name="Hamawi"/>

[[File:1281BattleOfHoms.JPG|thumb|Mamluks chasing archers at the [[Second Battle of Homs|Homs Battle of 1281]] (manuscript of ''[[La Fleur des histoires de la terre d'Orient]]'', [[BnF]], NAF 886, ''folio'' No. 27, ''verso'')]]
[[File:BattleOfHoms1299.JPG|thumb|Mamluks being chased by archers at the [[Third Battle of Homs|Homs Battle of 1299]] (same manuscript, ''folio'' No. 31, ''verso'')]]
Towards the end of Ayyubid rule, Homs remained a centrepiece of the wars between them and the Crusaders, as well as internecine conflicts with the [[Mongol Empire]] and the [[Mamluk]]s.<ref name="Dumper2"/> The [[First Battle of Homs]] between the Mongols and the Mamluks took place on 10 December 1260, ending in a decisive Mamluk victory. The [[Second Battle of Homs]] was fought on 29 October 1281, also ending in a Mamluk victory. The Mamluks were finally defeated in the [[Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar]], also known as the "Third Battle of Homs", in 1299.<ref name="Dumper2"/>

Homs declined politically after falling to the Mamluks under [[Baibars]] because their campaigns effectively drove out the Crusaders and the Mongols from the entirety of Syria. At the beginning of the 14th century, the city was merely the capital of the smallest province of Syria and was often attached to the province of Damascus.<ref name="Dumper2"/> [[Ibn Battuta|Ibn Batuta]] visited Homs in 1355, writing that it had fine trees, good markets, and a "fine Friday Mosque", noting that all of its inhabitants were Arabs.<ref>Ibn Batuta quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 357.</ref> [[Timur]] seized the city in 1400. Nevertheless, he did not sack it as he did in Aleppo, Hama and later Damascus, due to a man called "'Amr bin al-Rawas" who conciled with him offering precious gifts to save the city.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mohammad Amin Sheikho|title=حقيقة تيمورلنك العظيم تظهر في القرن الواحد والعشرين- الجزء الثاني|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_TAEAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT42|publisher=دار نور البشير|year=2011|page=43|language=ar|author-link=Mohammad Amin Sheikho|access-date=14 October 2019|archive-date=23 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923075043/https://books.google.com/books?id=_TAEAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT42|url-status=live}}</ref> Later in the 15th century as Mamluk weakness had brought insecurity to the countryside, Homs was ravaged by [[Bedouin]] raids; In 1510 a powerful tribe led by al-Fadl bin Nu'ayr was sent on an expedition by the governor of Damascus to loot the city markets as Homs had failed to pay compensation for his "services".<ref name="Dumper2"/>

===Ottoman rule===
{{See also|Ottoman Syria}}
In 1516, Homs was incorporated into the [[Ottoman Empire]] and consequently suffered a greater political eclipse, but it continued to thrive as an economic center, processing the agricultural and pastoral products that flowed to it from surrounding districts.<ref name="Collelo1">{{cite web|last=Collelo|first=Thomas|year=1987|url=http://countrystudies.us/syria/7.htm|title=Syria – Ottoman Empire|publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress|work=Syria: A Country Study|access-date=28 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613222335/http://countrystudies.us/syria/7.htm|archive-date=13 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> By the end of the 16th century, the population had increased to roughly 24,000 people, nearly double what it had been at the time of the Ottoman conquest. About 75% of its residents were Muslims, while 24% residents were Christians and the remaining 1% Jews.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Çakar |first=Enver |date=2003 |title=TAHRİR DEFTERLERİNE GÖRE XVI. YÜZYILDA HUMUS ŞEHRİ: The City of Homs in The Sixteenth Century According to The Tahrir Defterleri |url=https://avys.omu.edu.tr/storage/app/public/ilkay.erken/114621/6%20tahrir%20defterleri%20ve%20%C5%9Fehir.pdf |access-date=22 February 2025 |website=OMÜ - Akademik Veri Yönetim Sistemi |page=18}}</ref> Homs was particularly well known for [[silk]] and [[wool]] weaving, especially the ''alaja'', which was mottled [[muslin]] run through with gold threads and used in feminine apparel. This silk was exported as far as the Ottoman capital [[Istanbul]]. In addition to weaving industries, there were [[olive oil]] presses and water mills for [[wheat]] and [[sesame]], while [[grape]]s and [[rice]], grown in the surrounding marshlands from the 16th century, were found in abundance in the city's markets. Moreover, the markets of Homs were the center of a trade in livestock, where flocks of [[sheep]] and [[goat]]s coming from Aleppo met [[camel]]s and cattle moving north from Damascus.<ref name="Dumper2"/>

[[File:18th century original drawing of the castle of Hims by Cassas.jpg|thumb|18th-century illustration of Homs by [[Louis-François Cassas]]. The artist in the foreground is shown sketching the Citadel of Homs, surrounded by his guards and inquisitive locals]]
The coming of the Ottomans brought administrative changes to Homs, as it became the capital city of ''[[sanjak]]'' ("district") of [[Sanjak of Homs|Homs]], attached to the ''[[eyalet]]'' ("province") of [[Tripoli Eyalet|Tripoli]]—its old rival.<ref>Talhami, 2001, p. 2</ref> In the late 16th century the district was ruled by emir 'Ali Harfush of the famous Shiite [[Harfush dynasty]] of the nearby [[Beqaa valley]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Stefan|last=Winter|title=The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516-1788|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511676413|isbn=9780511676413|url=https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511676413|access-date=9 March 2022|archive-date=23 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923075035/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/shiites-of-lebanon-under-ottoman-rule-15161788/AE36D2DCD50C489E5AE95B4C55D99468|url-status=live}}pp. 48-51</ref> Later, a [[French people|French]] visitor noted that the city walls and citadel were in good repair, but all within was in decay and only its covered markets "retained their beauty." In 1785 French traveller, [[Constantin-François Chassebœuf|Volney]] wrote of the city's once great importance and its current "miserable" condition. He described it as a large, but ruined village administratively dependent on Damascus. The Ottomans did little to revitalise Homs or ensure its security against Bedouin raids. Tribal unrest throughout the 17th and 18th centuries resulted in the sacking of its markets on several occasions. Security was even more hampered, when in the 18th century, the Ottomans tore down the gates of the city's walls.<ref name="Dumper2"/> Around 1708, the emir Hamad al-Abbas of the [[Mawali (tribe)|Mawali]] Bedouin confederation, whom the Ottomans had named "emir of the desert" (''çöl beyi'') in the region, actually managed to capture the governor of Homs to hold him for ransom.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Stefan|last1=Winter|editor1-first=Stefan|editor1-last=Winter|editor2-first=Mafalda|editor2-last=Ade|title=Aleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period / Alep et sa province à l'époque ottomane|chapter=Alep et l’émirat du désert (çöl beyliği) au XVIIe-XVIIIe siècle|year=2019|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-37902-2}} p. 101-102.</ref>

The countryside of Homs saw an increase in Bedouin raids in the first half of the 19th century, interrupted by its occupation by [[Muhammad Ali dynasty|Muhammad Ali's Egypt]] led by [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]] between 1832 and 1840.<ref name="Collelo1"/><ref>Shaw, 1977, p. 33</ref> The city rebelled against Egyptian rule and consequently, the citadel was destroyed when the Egyptians suppressed the revolt. Ottoman rule was soon restored and up to the 1860s, Homs was large enough to form a discrete economic unit of trade and processing of agricultural products from its satellite villages and the neighbouring Bedouin tribes.<ref name="Dumper2"/>

[[File:D025-vue générale de homs.-L2-Ch4.png|thumb|left|General view of Homs at the end of the 19th century]]
[[File:Ibn-Whalid-Moschee.jpg|thumb|[[Khalid ibn al-Walid Mosque]], an example of [[Ottoman architecture]] in Homs, was built in the early 20th century]]
The local economy was stimulated when the Ottoman government extended security to the city and its surrounding areas; new villages were established and old ones were resettled. However, Homs found itself faced with European economic competition since Ottoman rule was restored. Homs' economic importance was boosted again during the depression of the 1870s, as its [[cotton]] industry boomed due to a decline of European textile production. The quality and design of cotton goods from Homs satisfied both the lower and upper classes of the local, Ottoman, and foreign markets. There were around 5,000 looms in Homs and nearby [[Hama]], and one British consul referred to Homs as the "[[Manchester]] of Syria".<ref name="Dumper2"/>

===Modern era===
[[File:The Citadel of Homs. Homs, a desert town between Damascus and Aleppo. the Australian Light Horse are bivouacked in the foreground. Art.IWMART1578.jpg|thumb|The Citadel behind a camp of the [[Australian Light Horse]] on 19 November 1918 ([[James McBey]])]]

===20th century===
Throughout the 20th century Homs held high political importance in the country and was home to several heads of state and other high-ranking government officials.<ref name="Dumper2"/> In October 1918, it was [[Pursuit to Haritan#Occupation of Homs|captured]] by the [[5th Cavalry Division (India)|5th Cavalry Division]] of the [[Allies of World War I|Allied forces]]. During the [[French mandate of Syria|French mandate]], Homs was part of the [[State of Damascus]]. It was considered for some time to become the capital of the [[Syrian Federation]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Philip Shukry Khoury|title=Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tvP_AwAAQBAJ|page=138|isbn=9781400858392|date=14 July 2014|publisher=Princeton University Press |access-date=2 October 2020|archive-date=23 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923075049/https://books.google.com/books?id=tvP_AwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> In Autumn 1925, the city joined Damascus and the southern [[Druze]] chieftains in a full-blown [[Great Syrian Revolt|revolt]] against French rule.<ref>Cleveland, 2000, p. 215.</ref> In 1932, the French moved their [[military academy]] from Damascus to Homs to be established in 1933, later known as [[Homs Military Academy]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/syria/syria121.html|title=Military Training|work=All Refer|access-date=3 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053653/http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/syria/syria121.html|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> and it remained the only military academy in Syria until 1967.<ref name="commins">Commins, 2004, p. 130.</ref> The French authorities had created a locally recruited military force designated as the [[Army of the Levant|Special Troops of the Levant]], in which the [[Alawite]]s were given privileged positions. The military academy in Homs trained the indigenous officers for these ''Troupes Speciales du Levant''.<ref>Fisk, Robert. [https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-fearful-realities-keeping-the-assad-regime-in-power-7534769.html The fearful realities keeping the Assad regime in power] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615182323/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-fearful-realities-keeping-the-assad-regime-in-power-7534769.html |date=15 June 2012 }} ''[[The Independent]]''. pp.35–36. 4 March 2012. Retrieved on 4 March 2012.</ref> The Homs Military Academy played a major role in the years following Syria's independence, as many of its graduates went on to become high-ranking officers in the [[Syrian Army]], many of them taking part in the series of [[coup d'état]]s that were to follow. An important example was [[Hafez al-Assad]] who became the president of Syria from 1971 until his death in 2000.<ref name="Seale"/>

[[File:Camp Homs.jpg|thumb|The Homs camp of the [[Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade]] (1940)]]
[[File:Homs 13970819 18.jpg|thumb|The Syrian civil war caused major destruction in Homs]]
An oil pipeline between [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] and [[Kirkuk]] was built in Homs in the early 1930s and it followed an ancient caravan route between Palmyra and the Mediterranean. In 1959, an oil refinery was built to process some of this oil for domestic consumption.<ref name="Dumper2"/> The city's oil refinery was bombed by the [[Israeli Air Force]] (IAF) during the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]].<ref name="Seale">Seale, 2007, p. 210.</ref>

===21st century===
From May 2011 – May 2014, the city was under [[Siege of Homs|siege]] by the Syrian Army and security forces. The Syrian government claimed it was targeting "armed gangs" and "terrorists" in the area. According to the Syrian opposition, Homs has since become a "blighted city", where authorities regularly block deliveries of medicine, food and fuel to the inhabitants of certain districts. By June, there were near-daily confrontations between protesting residents and Syrian forces. As a result of these circumstances, there have been more deaths in Homs and its vicinity than in other areas of Syria. Homs was the first Syrian city where images of al-Assad and his family were routinely torn down or defaced and the first place where Syrian forces used artillery during the uprising. The Center for Documenting Violations in Syria claims that at least 1,770 people have been killed in Homs since the uprising began.<ref>[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2011/1076/re4.htm Capital of the Revolution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217230844/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2011/1076/re4.htm |date=17 December 2011 }}. ''[[Al-Ahram Weekly]]''. 15 December 2011.</ref>

On 9 December 2015, under a UN-negotiated deal, the remnants of anti-government forces and their families, that had been under siege the [[al-Waer]] district for three years, began to evacuate from the city.<ref name="evac">{{Cite news|title = Syria conflict: Rebels leave Homs under truce – BBC News|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35048404|language = en-GB|date = 9 December 2015|access-date = 21 June 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180920215436/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35048404|archive-date = 20 September 2018|url-status = live}}</ref>

Homs was the site of heavy fighting between government forces and the Syrian opposition during the [[2024 Homs offensive]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anti-Assad rebels take most of southern Syrian region of Deraa, say reports |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn0x1n996z4o |access-date=2024-12-07 |website=www.bbc.com |date=7 December 2024 |language=en-GB}}</ref> On 7 December 2024, Syrian rebels claimed that they had captured Homs.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/12/07/world/syria-war-damascus/b0665845-0363-5c6d-b5e0-7db628b4d376 |title=The rebels have declared that they have fully captured the city of Homs, about 100 miles north of Syria's capital, Damascus. |date=7 December 2024 |last=Abdulrahim |first=Raja |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=7 December 2024}}</ref>