Editing History of the Philippines (section)

== Prehistory ==
{{Main|Prehistory of the Philippines}}
[[File:Tabon Cave 2014 01.JPG|thumb|Docking station and entrance to the [[Tabon Cave]] Complex Site in [[Palawan]], where one of the oldest human remains was located.]]

Stone tools and fossils of butchered animal remains discovered in Rizal, Kalinga are evidences of early hominins in the country to as early as 709,000 years.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Ingicco |first1=T. |last2=van den Bergh |first2=G.D. |last3=Jago-on |first3=C. |last4=Bahain |first4=J.-J. |last5=Chacón |first5=M.G. |last6=Amano |first6=N. |last7=Forestier |first7=H. |last8=King |first8=C. |last9=Manalo |first9=K. |last10=Nomade |first10=S. |last11=Pereira |first11=A. |date=May 1, 2018 |title=Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709 thousand years ago |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |journal=Nature |volume=557 |issue=7704 |pages=233–237 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..233I |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0072-8 |pmid=29720661 |first12=M.C. |last12=Reyes |first13=A.-M. |last13=Sémah |first14=Q. |last14=Shao |first15=P. |last15=Voinchet |first16=C. |last16=Falguères |first17=P.C.H. |last17=Albers |first18=M. |last18=Lising |first19=G. |last19=Lyras |first20=D. |last20=Yurnaldi |first21=P. |last21=Rochette |first22=A. |last22=Bautista |first23=J. |last23=de Vos |s2cid=13742336 |access-date=May 20, 2020 |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301002927/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |url-status=dead }}</ref> Researchers found 57 stone tools near rhinoceros bones bearing cut marks and some bones smashed open, suggesting that the early humans were after the nutrient-rich marrow.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Very Long Way to Eat Rhino - Archaeology Magazine |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/310-1809/trenches/6868-trenches-philippines-middle-pleistocene-rhinoceros-feast |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=www.archaeology.org}}</ref> A 2023 study dated the age of fossilized  remains of ''Homo luzonensis'' of Cagayan at about 134,000 years.<ref name=":13" />

This and the [[Angono Petroglyphs]] in [[Rizal (province)|Rizal]] suggest the presence of human settlement before the arrival of the [[Negrito]]s and [[Austronesian people|Austronesian speaking people]].<ref name="Jett2017">{{Cite book |last=Jett |first=Stephen C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas |date=2017 |publisher=University of Alabama Press |isbn=9780817319397 |pages=168–171}}</ref><ref name="Detroit2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Détroit |first1=Florent |last2=Corny |first2=Julien |last3=Dizon |first3=Eusebio Z. |last4=Mijares |first4=Armand S. |date=2013 |title="Small Size" in the Philippine Human Fossil Record: Is It Meaningful for a Better Understanding of the Evolutionary History of the Negritos? |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c3c5/8d22cf45c6231c302c3f3c9a58ac435e0a33.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323014000/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c3c5/8d22cf45c6231c302c3f3c9a58ac435e0a33.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 23, 2019 |journal=Human Biology |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=45–66 |doi=10.3378/027.085.0303 |pmid=24297220 |s2cid=24057857 |accessdate=May 20, 2020 }}</ref> The Callao Man remains and 12 bones of three hominin individuals found by subsequent excavations in Callao Cave were later identified to belong in a new species named ''[[Homo luzonensis]]''.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Détroit |first1=Florent |last2=Mijares |first2=Armand Salvador |last3=Corny |first3=Julien |last4=Daver |first4=Guillaume |last5=Zanolli |first5=Clément |last6=Dizon |first6=Eusebio |last7=Robles |first7=Emil |last8=Grün |first8=Rainer |last9=Piper |first9=Philip J. |title=A new species of Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines |journal=Nature |date=April 2019 |volume=568 |issue=7751 |pages=181–186 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1067-9 |pmid=30971845 |bibcode=2019Natur.568..181D |s2cid=106411053 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02296712/file/Detroit_%26_al_2019_Nature_postprint.pdf |archive-date=October 13, 2022 |access-date=May 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013114830/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02296712/file/Detroit_%26_al_2019_Nature_postprint.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> For [[Humans|modern humans]], the Tabon Man remains are the still oldest known at about 47,000 years.<ref name=":3" />

The [[Negrito]]s were early settlers,<ref name="Reid2007">{{cite book |last=Reid |first=Lawrence A. |author-link=Lawrence A. Reid |year=2007 |chapter=Historical linguistics and Philippine hunter-gatherers |editor1=L. Billings |editor2=N. Goudswaard |title=Piakandatu ami Dr. Howard P. McKaughan |location=Manila |publisher=Linguistic Society of the Philippines and SIL Philippines |pages=6–32 |quote=The Negrito groups are considered to be the earliest inhabitants of the Philippines... genetic evidence (the occurrence of unique alleles) suggests that the Negrito groups in Mindanao may have been separated from those in Luzon for twenty to thirty thousand years (p.10).}}</ref> but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Scott|1984|p=138}}. "Not one roof beam, not one grain of rice, not one pygmy Negrito bone has been recovered. Any theory which describes such details is therefore pure hypothesis and should be honestly presented as such."</ref> They were followed by speakers of the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]], a branch of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]]. The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at 3000–2200 BCE, settling the [[Batanes Islands]] and [[northern Luzon]].

From there, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and [[Southeast Asia]], as well as voyaging further east to reach the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] by around 1500 BCE.<ref name=":6" /><ref name="Chambers2013">{{cite book |last1=Chambers |first1=Geoff |title=eLS |chapter=Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians |publisher= John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|date=2013 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2|isbn=978-0470016176}}</ref><ref name="mijares2006">{{cite journal|last1=Mijares|first1=Armand Salvador B. |year=2006 |url=http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/10/9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707050814/http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/10/9|archive-date=July 7, 2014 |title=The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon: Perspectives From The Peñablanca Cave Sites|journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association|issue=26|pages=72–78}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated213">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration|date=2014|page=213}}</ref> They assimilated the earlier [[Australo-Melanesian]] Negritos, resulting in the modern [[Filipino ethnic groups]] that all display various ratios of [[genetic admixture]] between Austronesian and Negrito groups.<ref name="Lipson2014">{{cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Loh |first2=Po-Ru |last3=Patterson |first3=Nick |last4=Moorjani |first4=Priya |last5=Ko |first5=Ying-Chin |last6=Stoneking |first6=Mark |last7=Berger |first7=Bonnie |last8=Reich |first8=David |title=Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia |journal=Nature Communications |date=2014 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=4689 |doi=10.1038/ncomms5689 |pmid=25137359 |pmc=4143916 |bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4689L }}</ref>{{sfn|Scott|1984|p=52}} Before the expansion out of Taiwan, archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence had linked Austronesian speakers in Insular Southeast Asia to cultures such as the [[Hemudu culture|Hemudu]], its successor the [[Liangzhu culture|Liangzhu]]<ref name="autogenerated213" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Goodenough|first1=Ward Hunt|title=Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5 |date=1996 |publisher=American Philosophical Society|pages=127–128}}</ref> and [[Dapenkeng culture|Dapenkeng]] in Neolithic China.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goodenough|first1=Ward Hunt|title=Prehistoric Settlement of the Pacific, Volume 86, Part 5 |date=1996 |publisher=American Philosophical Society|page=52}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum |url=http://bishopmuseum.org/media/2007/pr07036.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228173514/http://bishopmuseum.org/media/2007/pr07036.html |archive-date=February 28, 2014 |access-date=April 16, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sagart |first1=Laurent |chapter=The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archaeological model |pages=165–190 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gKF9iWqt0gC&pg=RA1-PT48 |editor1-last=Sanchez-Mazas |editor1-first=Alicia |editor2-last=Blench |editor2-first=Roger |editor3-last=Ross |editor3-first=Malcolm D. |editor4-last=Peiros |editor4-first=Ilia |editor5-last=Lin |editor5-first=Marie |title=Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics |date=July 25, 2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-14962-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Y chromosomes of prehistoric people along the Yangtze River| pmid=17657509 | doi=10.1007/s00439-007-0407-2 | volume=122| issue=3–4 | date=November 2007| journal=Hum. Genet.| pages=383–8 | last1 = Li | first1 = H | last2 = Huang | first2 = Y | last3 = Mustavich | first3 = LF | s2cid=2533393 |display-authors=etal| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ko |first1=Albert Min-Shan |last2=Chen |first2=Chung-Yu |last3=Fu |first3=Qiaomei |last4=Delfin |first4=Frederick |last5=Li |first5=Mingkun |last6=Chiu |first6=Hung-Lin |last7=Stoneking |first7=Mark |last8=Ko |first8=Ying-Chin |title=Early Austronesians: Into and Out Of Taiwan |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=March 2014 |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=426–436 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.02.003 |pmid=24607387 |pmc=3951936 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The most widely accepted theory of the population of the islands is the [[Out-of-Taiwan hypothesis|"Out-of-Taiwan" model]] that follows the Austronesian expansion during the [[Neolithic]] in a series of maritime migrations originating from [[Taiwan]] that spread to the islands of the [[Indo-Pacific]]; ultimately reaching as far as [[New Zealand]], [[Easter Island]], and [[Madagascar]].<ref name="Chambers2013" /><ref name="Bellwood2004" /> Austronesians themselves originated from the Neolithic rice-cultivating pre-Austronesian civilizations of the [[Lower Yangtze|Yangtze River delta]] in coastal southeastern China pre-dating the [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|conquest of those regions]] by the [[Han Chinese]].

This includes civilizations like the [[Liangzhu culture]], [[Hemudu culture]], and the [[Majiabang culture]].<ref name="Liu2012">{{Cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Li |title=The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age |last2=Chen |first2=Xingcan |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780521644327 |series=Cambridge World Archaeology |page=204 |chapter=Emergence of social inequality – The middle Neolithic (5000–3000 BC) |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139015301.007 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oX6gs6TAZdEC&pg=PA204}}</ref> It connects speakers of the [[Austronesian languages]] in a common linguistic and genetic lineage, including the [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]], [[Islander Southeast Asians]], [[Chams]], Islander [[Melanesians]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesians]], [[Polynesians]], and the [[Malagasy people]]. Aside from language and genetics, they also share common cultural markers like [[multihull]] and [[outrigger boat]]s, [[tattooing]], [[rice cultivation]], [[wetland agriculture]], [[teeth blackening]], [[jade]] carving, [[Paan|betel nut chewing]], [[ancestor worship]], and the same [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia|domesticated plants and animals]] (including dogs, pigs, chickens, yams, bananas, sugarcane, and coconuts).<ref name="Chambers2013" /><ref name="Bellwood2004">{{cite book|last1 =Bellwood|first1 =Peter|editor1-last =Glover|editor1-first =Ian|editor2-last =Bellwood|editor2-first =Peter|title =Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History|chapter =The origins and dispersals of agricultural communities in Southeast Asia|publisher =RoutledgeCurzon|year =2004|pages =21–40|isbn =9780415297776|chapter-url =http://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchaut12/Bellwood%202004.pdf|archive-date =March 12, 2023|access-date =May 20, 2020|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20230312151529/https://faculty.washington.edu/plape/pacificarchaut12/Bellwood%202004.pdf|url-status =live}}</ref><ref name="BlenchFruits">{{cite journal |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2004 |volume=24 |issue=The Taipei Papers (Volume 2) |pages=31–50 |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |access-date=May 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161216/https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2021 genetic study examining representatives of 115 indigenous communities found evidence of at least five independent waves of early human migration. Negrito groups, divided between those in Luzon and those in Mindanao, may come from a single wave and diverged subsequently, or through two separate waves. This likely occurred sometime after 46,000 years ago. Another Negrito migration entered Mindanao sometime after 25,000 years ago. Two early East Asian waves were detected, one most strongly evidenced among the [[Manobo]] people who live in inland Mindanao, and the other in the [[Sama-Bajau]] and related people of the Sulu archipelago, Zamboanga Peninsula, and Palawan. The admixture found in the Sama people indicates a relationship with the [[Htin people|Htin]] and [[Mlabri people]] of mainland Southeast Asia, both peoples being speakers of an [[Austroasiatic language]] and reflects a similar genetic signal found in western Indonesia. These happened sometime after 15,000 years ago and 12,000 years ago respectively, around the time the [[last glacial period]] was coming to an end. Austronesians, either from Southern China or Taiwan, were found to have come in at least two distinct waves. The first, occurring perhaps between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, brought the ancestors of indigenous groups that today live around the [[Cordillera Central (Luzon)|Cordillera Central]] mountain range. Later migrations brought other Austronesian groups, along with agriculture, and the languages of these recent Austronesian migrants effectively replaced those existing populations. In all cases, new immigrants appear to have mixed to some degree with existing populations. The integration of Southeast Asia into Indian Ocean trading networks around 2,000 years ago also shows some impact, with South Asian genetic signals present within some Sama-Bajau communities. There is also some Papuan migration to Southeast Mindanao as Papuan genetic signatures were detected in the [[Sangil language|Sangil]] and [[Blaan people|Blaan]] ethnic groups.<ref name="Larena">{{cite journal |last1=Larena |first1=Maximilian |last2=Sanchez-Quinto |first2=Federico |last3=Sjödin |first3=Per |last4=McKenna |first4=James |last5=Ebeo |first5=Carlo |last6=Reyes |first6=Rebecca |last7=Casel |first7=Ophelia |last8=Huang |first8=Jin-Yuan |last9=Hagada |first9=Kim Pullupul |last10=Guilay |first10=Dennis |last11=Reyes |first11=Jennelyn |last12=Allian |first12=Fatima Pir |last13=Mori |first13=Virgilio |last14=Azarcon |first14=Lahaina Sue |last15=Manera |first15=Alma |last16=Terando |first16=Celito |last17=Jamero |first17=Lucio |last18=Sireg |first18=Gauden |last19=Manginsay-Tremedal |first19=Renefe |last20=Labos |first20=Maria Shiela |last21=Vilar |first21=Richard Dian |last22=Latiph |first22=Acram |last23=Saway |first23=Rodelio Linsahay |last24=Marte |first24=Erwin |last25=Magbanua |first25=Pablito |last26=Morales |first26=Amor |last27=Java |first27=Ismael |last28=Reveche |first28=Rudy |last29=Barrios |first29=Becky |last30=Burton |first30=Erlinda |last31=Salon |first31=Jesus Christopher |last32=Kels |first32=Ma. Junaliah Tuazon |last33=Albano |first33=Adrian |last34=Cruz-Angeles |first34=Rose Beatrix |last35=Molanida |first35=Edison |last36=Granehäll |first36=Lena |last37=Vicente |first37=Mário |last38=Edlund |first38=Hanna |last39=Loo |first39=Jun-Hun |last40=Trejaut |first40=Jean |last41=Ho |first41=Simon Y. W. |last42=Reid |first42=Lawrence |last43=Malmström |first43=Helena |last44=Schlebusch |first44=Carina |last45=Lambeck |first45=Kurt |last46=Endicott |first46=Phillip |last47=Jakobsson |first47=Mattias |title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=March 30, 2021 |volume=118 |issue=13 |pages=e2026132118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |pmid=33753512 |pmc=8020671 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi-access=free }}</ref>

By 1000 BCE, the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal groups, such as the [[Aeta peoples|Aetas]], [[Hanunó'o language|Hanunoo]], [[Ilongot people|Ilongots]] and the [[Mangyan]] who depended on [[Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gathering]] and were concentrated in forests; warrior societies, such as the [[Isneg]] and [[Kalinga people|Kalinga]] who practiced social ranking and [[Ritualization|ritualized]] warfare and roamed the plains; the petty [[plutocracy]] of the [[Ifugao people|Ifugao]] Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges of [[Luzon]]; and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while participating in trans-island maritime trade.<ref name="Legarda, Benito, Jr. 2001 40" /> It was also during the first millennium BCE that early metallurgy was said to have reached the archipelagos of maritime Southeast Asia via trade with India{{sfn|Munoz|2006|p=45}}<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Glover|editor1-first=Ian|editor2-last=Bellwood|editor2-first=Peter|title=Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC&pg=PA36 |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-29777-6|pages=36, 157}}</ref>

Around 300–700 CE, the seafaring peoples of the islands traveling in ''[[balangay]]s'' began to trade with the [[Indianized kingdoms]] in the [[Malay Archipelago]] and the nearby [[East Asian]] principalities, adopting influences from both [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]].<ref>''The Philippines and India'' – Dhirendra Nath Roy, Manila 1929 and ''India and The World'' – By Buddha Prakash p. 119–120.</ref>

===Maritime Jade Road===
The [[Maritime Jade Road]] was initially established by the animist indigenous peoples between the Philippines and Taiwan, and later expanded to cover Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and other countries.<ref>Hsiao-Chun Hung, et al. (2007). Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia. PNAS.</ref> Artifacts made from white and green [[Jade|nephrite]] have been discovered at a number of archeological excavations in the Philippines since the 1930s. The artifacts have been both tools like [[adze]]s<ref name=UCLA1981>Father Gabriel Casal & Regalado Trota Jose, Jr., Eric S. Casino, George R. Ellis, Wilhelm G. Solheim II, ''The People and Art of the Philippines'', printed by the Museum of Cultural History, UCLA (1981)</ref> and [[chisel]]s, and ornaments such as lingling-o earrings, bracelets and beads.<ref name="uno">Bellwood, Peter, Hsiao-Chun Hung, and Yoshiyuki Iizuka. "Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction." Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde (2011): 31–41.</ref> Tens of thousands were found in a single site in [[Batangas]].{{sfn|Scott|1984|p=17}}<ref name="Pathos of Origin">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=Pathos of Origin |date=2011 |pages=31–41}}</ref> The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland Southeast Asia. These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hsiao-Chun|first1=Hung|title=Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia|date=2007}}</ref> Throughout history, the Maritime Jade Road has been known as one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world, existing for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.<ref>Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). [https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324023227/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 |date=March 24, 2022 }}. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref> The operations of the Maritime Jade Road coincided with an era of near absolute peace which lasted for 1,500 years, from 500 BCE to 1000 CE.<ref>Mallari, P. G. S. (2014). War and peace in precolonial Philippines. The Manila Times.</ref> During this peaceful pre-colonial period, not a single burial site studied by scholars yielded any osteological proof for violent death. No instances of mass burials were recorded as well, signifying the peaceful situation of the islands. Burials with violent proof were only found from burials beginning in the 15th century, likely due to the newer cultures of expansionism imported from India and China. When the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, they recorded some warlike groups, whose cultures have already been influenced by the imported Indian and Chinese expansionist cultures of the 15th century.<ref>Junker, L. L. (1999). Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. University of Hawaii Press.</ref>

===The Sa Huỳnh culture===
{{see also|Kalanay Cave}}
[[File:Asia 200bc.jpg|thumb|Asia in 200 BCE, showing the [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] in [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] and the Philippines in transition.]]
The [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] centered on present-day Vietnam, showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huỳnh beads were made from glass, [[carnelian]], [[agate]], [[olivine]], [[zircon]], gold and [[garnet]]; most of these materials were not local to the region, and were most likely imported. [[Han dynasty]]-style [[bronze mirror]]s were also found in Sa Huỳnh sites.

Conversely, Sa Huỳnh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in [[Central Thailand]], Taiwan (Orchid Island), and in the Philippines, in the [[Palawan]], [[Tabon Caves]]. One of the great examples is the [[Kalanay Cave]] in [[Masbate]]; the artefacts on the site in one of the "Sa Huỳnh-Kalanay" pottery complex sites were dated 400BCE–1500 CE. The [[Maitum anthropomorphic pottery]] in the [[Sarangani Province]] of southern [[Mindanao]] is c. 200 CE.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Solheim|first1=William|title=Prehistoric Archaeology in Eastern Mainland Southeast Asia and the Philippines|date=1969|volume=3|pages=97–108|journal=Asian Perspectives|hdl=10125/19126}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1-link=John N. Miksic|last1=Miksic |first1=John N. |title=Earthenware in Southeast Asia: Proceedings of the Singapore Symposium on Premodern Southeast Asian Earthenwares. |location=Singapore |publisher=Singapore University Press, National University of Singapore|date=2003}}</ref>

Ambiguity of what is Sa Huỳnh culture puts into question its extent of influence in Southeast Asia. Sa Huỳnh culture is characterized by use of cylindrical or egg-shaped burial jars associated with hat-shaped lids. Using its mortuary practice as a new definition, Sa Huỳnh culture should be geographically restricted across Central Vietnam between Hue City in the north and Nha Trang City in the south. Recent archeological research reveals that the potteries in Kalanay Cave are quite different from those of the Sa Huỳnh but strikingly similar to those in Hoa Diem site, Central Vietnam and Samui Island, Thailand. New estimate dates the artifacts in Kalanay cave to come much later than Sa Huỳnh culture at 200–300 CE. Bio-anthropological analysis of human fossils found also confirmed the colonization of Vietnam by Austronesian people from insular Southeast Asia in, e.g., the Hoa Diem site.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dhani Irwanto|title=Sundaland: Tracing The Cradle of Civilizations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3qODwAAQBAJ|year=2019|publisher=Indonesia Hydro Media|isbn=978-602-724-493-1|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-3qODwAAQBAJ&dq=%22hoa+diem%22+austronesian&pg=PA41 41]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Yamagata|first1=Mariko|last2=Matsumura|first2=Hirofumi|chapter=Austronesian Migration to Central Vietnam: Crossing over the Iron Age Southeast Asian Sea|date=2017|title=New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory|volume=45|pages=333–356|editor-last=Matsumura|editor-first=Hirofumi|publisher=ANU Press|isbn=978-1-76046-094-5|jstor=j.ctt1pwtd26.26|editor2-last=Piper|editor2-first=Philip J.|editor3-last=Bulbeck|editor3-first=David}}</ref>

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    id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) #
    id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) #
    id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) #
    id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar
    id:black value:black

Period     = from:-1300 till:500
TimeAxis   = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-1300
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-1300

PlotData =
  align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:15 shift:(0,-5)

  bar:Vietnam color:era
  from: -771 till: -221 shift:(0,5) text:[[Sa Huỳnh culture]]
  from: -221 till: 500 shift:(0,4) text:[[Óc Eo culture]]
  bar:Vietnam color:filler
  from: -221 till: 500 shift:(0,-7) text:[[Imperial Vietnam]]
 
  bar: Philippines color:era
   from: -771 till: -221 shift:(0,5) text:[[Sa Huỳnh culture|Sa Huyun culture]]
  bar:Philippines color:filler
  from: -108 till: -18 shift:(0,5) text:[[History of the Philippines|Ancient Barangay's]]
  from: -18 till: 500 text:[[History of the Philippines (900-1521)|Archaic epoch]]
 
  bar: Indonesia color:era
  from: -500 till: -108 text:[[Prehistory of Indonesia]]
  bar:Indonesia color:filler
  from: -108 till: -18 shift:(0,4) text:[[Buni culture]]
  from: -18 till: 500 text:[[Tarumanagara|Early Kingdoms]]
</timeline>
:::''Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details''
:::{{color box|#ffd880}} Prehistoric (or [[Protohistory|Proto-historic]]) Iron Age {{color box|#cccccc}} Historic Iron Age