Editing History of Timor-Leste (section)

==Portuguese rule==
{{Main article|Portuguese Timor}}
{{see also|Battle of Penfui}}
[[File:Lesser coat of arms of Portuguese Timor.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.55|Arms of Portuguese Timor (1935–1975)<ref name="Flags of the World">{{Cite web |title=East Timor: flag proposal of 1967 |url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/tl!1967.html |website=Flags of the World |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408212757/https://www.fotw.info/flags/tl!1967.html |archive-date=8 April 2014 |access-date=17 July 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>]]
The first Europeans to arrive in the area were the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who landed near present-day [[Pante Macassar]]. These Portuguese were traders that arrived between 1512 and 1515.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} However, only in 1556 did a group of [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[Dominican friar|friars]] establish their missionary work in the area, settling just north in [[Solor]].<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|42}} [[Dutch–Portuguese War|War with the Netherlands]] reduced Portuguese control in the Malay archipelago, limiting them mostly to the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. Later wars further reduced Portuguese influence, with Solor falling in 1613, and [[Kupang]] in the west of Timor falling in 1653.<ref name="Telkamp1979">{{cite book |last1=Telkamp |first1=Gerard J. |title=Between People and Statistics |date=1979 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-009-8846-0 |pages=71–72 |chapter=The Economic Structure of an Outpost in the Outer Islands in the Indonesian Archipelago: Portuguese Timor 1850–1975 |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-8846-0_6 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8846-0_6 |access-date=9 July 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408195434/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-8846-0_6 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Dutch and Portuguese sources relate that the island was divided into two collections of kingdoms. Sixteen kingdoms were grouped into {{ill|Servião|de|Servião}} in the west, while in the east fifty kingdoms were part of [[Belu (province)|Belos]].<ref name="Kammen2010">{{Cite journal |last=Kammen |first=Douglas |date=2010 |title=Subordinating Timor: Central authority and the origins of communal identities in East Timor |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27868578 |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=166 |issue=2/3 |pages=244–269 |jstor=27868578 |issn=0006-2294 |access-date=14 January 2023 |archive-date=5 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105110629/https://www.jstor.org/stable/27868578 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|246}}

By the seventeenth century the village of [[Lifau]] – today part of the [[Oecusse District|Oecussi]] enclave – had become the centre of Portuguese activities. At this time, the Portuguese began to convert the Timorese to Catholicism. Starting in 1642, a military expedition led by the Portuguese Francisco Fernandes took place. The aim of this expedition was to weaken the power of the Timor kings and even as this expedition was made by the [[Topasses]], the 'Black Portuguese', it succeeded to extend the Portuguese influence into the interior of the country.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} In 1702 a Governor was appointed for Solor and Timor, based in [[Lifau]]. Portuguese control over the territory was tenuous, with opposition coming from [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friars, the Topasses, restive vassal kingdoms, and the south Sulawesi-based [[Early history of Gowa and Talloq|Gowa and Talloq]] sultanates. A rebellion in 1725 led to a campaign by Portuguese forces and allies from the north coast, which culminated in Portuguese victory at the 1726 [[Battle of Cailaco]].<ref name="Kammen2010"/>{{rp|246–247}} In 1769, seeking to wrest control from the Topasses, the Portuguese governor moved his administration along with 1,200 people from Lifau to what would become [[Dili]].<ref name="Telkamp1979"/> The control of colonial administrators, largely restricted to Dili, had to rely on traditional tribal chieftains for control and influence.<ref name="Schwarz 1994 198">{{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=A. |year=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/198 198] |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=1-86373-635-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw/page/198 }}</ref>

For both Portugal and the Netherlands, Timor remained a low priority with little presence outside of the cities of Dili and Kupang.<ref name="Telkamp1979"/> Nonetheless, continuing disputes over competing spheres of influence with the Dutch led to a number of treaties aimed at formalising borders and eliminating enclaves.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|42}} The border between Portuguese Timor and the Dutch East Indies was formally decided in 1859 with the [[Treaty of Lisbon (1859)|Treaty of Lisbon]]. Portugal received the eastern half, together with the north coast pocket of Oecussi.<ref name="Deeley2001">{{Cite book |last=Deeley |first=Neil |title=The International Boundaries of East Timor |date=2001 |publisher=IBRU |pages=8}}</ref> There are competing views over whether this border reflected existing cultural differences.<ref name="Strating2018"/>{{rp|42–43}} This 1859 treaty saw Portugal take control of [[Maubara Administrative Post|Maubara]], where the Dutch had begun [[coffee]] cultivation, in exchange for formally relinquishing claims in Solor and Flores.<ref name="Telkamp1979"/>

In 1844 Timor, along with Macau and Solor, was removed from the jurisdiction of [[Portuguese India]]. A few years later in 1850, [[Portuguese Timor]] was removed from the jurisdiction of the governor of Macau, before being returned to the jurisdiction of Portuguese India in 1856. In 1863, Dili was declared a city (although the news may not have arrived to the city until the next year), and East Timor became directly subordinate to the Lisbon government. In 1866 the territory was again put under the jurisdiction of Macau. An 1887 mutiny in Dili led to the death of the Governor at the time. The territory was separated from Macau for the last time in 1896, again coming directly under the jurisdiction of Lisbon, and becoming a full province in 1909.<ref name="Thomaz2017">{{cite journal |last1=Thomaz |first1=Luís Filipe F. R. |title=La chronologie historique de Timor Oriental |journal=Archipel |date=2017 |issue=93 |pages=199–217 |doi=10.4000/archipel.416 |hdl=10400.14/35931 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/archipel/416 |language=fr |hdl-access=free |access-date=9 July 2022 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416194819/https://journals.openedition.org/archipel/416 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|212–215}}

In 1910–12, the [[East Timorese rebellion of 1910–12|East Timorese rebelled]] against Portugal. Troops from Mozambique and naval gunfire were brought in to suppress the rebels. The definitive border was drawn by [[The Hague]] in 1914,<ref name="Deeley2001"/> and it remains the international boundary between the modern states of Timor-Leste and Indonesia.<ref name="Reis2014">{{cite journal |last1=Reis |first1=Célia |title=Macao et Timor. La souveraineté portugaise et l'incidence de la guerre de 1914–1918 |journal=Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains |date=2014 |volume=256 |issue=4 |pages=69–80 |doi=10.3917/gmcc.256.0069 |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-guerres-mondiales-et-conflits-contemporains-2014-4-page-69.htm |language=fr |doi-access=free |access-date=22 July 2021 |archive-date=22 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722101633/https://www.cairn.info/revue-guerres-mondiales-et-conflits-contemporains-2014-4-page-69.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Maucatar]] became part of Portuguese Timor during this period.<ref name="Telkamp1979"/> The [[Portuguese Timorese pataca]] became the sole official currency in 1915. Difficulties in communication and logistics arising as a result of [[World War I]] led to trade disruptions. Economic difficulties and an inability to pay salaries led to a small revolt in 1919.<ref name="Reis2014"/>

For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post until the late nineteenth century. Investment in infrastructure, health, and education was minimal. The island was seen as a way to exile those who the government in Lisbon saw as "problems" – these included political prisoners as well as ordinary criminals. Portuguese ruled through a traditional system of liurai (local chiefs). Sandalwood remained the main export crop with coffee exports becoming significant in the mid-nineteenth century. In places where Portuguese rule was asserted, it tended to be brutal and exploitative. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering home economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies.<ref name="Schwarz 1994 198"/> Portuguese authorities created an administrative structure based on the existing kingdoms, while also creating a new level of administration under them, the ''suco''. This new level was created around villages, or groups of villages linked by kinship. These new administrative boundaries thus reflected family ties, and strengthened family power as villages gained administrative power. This created a permanent shift of powers from the level of the kingdom to that of the villages.<ref name="Scambary2021">{{cite book |chapter=Geographies of Power: Implementing Community Driven Development in Urban Dili, Timor-Leste |title=Rural–Urban Dichotomies and Spatial Development in Asia |author1=James Scambary |author2=Joana de Mesquita Lima |series=New Frontiers in Regional Science: Asian Perspectives |volume=48 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-16-1232-9_12 |date=2 July 2021 |pages=275–295}}</ref>{{rp|279}}

The administration of [[José Celestino da Silva]] began in 1893. He aimed to make the territory profitable. To gain more control he reduced the power of local kings, and even eliminated smaller and more disloyal ones. Implementation of the head tax required a census, and depended on the loyalty of the local leaders who would be responsible for collection. He also sought to impose a [[Poll tax|head tax]] which collected tax from each household, necessitating a census of the territory to count these households. The head tax was imposed by Silva's successor, Eduardo Augusto Marques, once the census was complete. The needs of the census meant power at this time also flowed to leaders of ''aldeias'', a smaller unit that ''sucos'' whose leaders were responsible for some tax collection and were given formal military ranks.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|279}}

The remaining power of the kings further diminished after the [[5 October 1910 revolution]] made Portugal a republic, especially as many Timorese kings were monarchist sympathisers. The kings now operated [[Administrative posts of Timor-Leste|Administrative posts]] on behalf of the Portuguese.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|280}}

Portuguese Timor had been a place of exile for political and social opponents deported from the metropolis since the late nineteenth century. Among them a large proportion were members of the [[Anarchism|anarchist]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalist]] movement, which until the Second World War was the most influential of the left-wing movements in Portugal. The main waves of deportations to Timor were in 1896, 1927, and 1931. Some of the activists continued their resistance even in exile. After World War II, the remaining exiles were pardoned and allowed to return.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Damier |first1=Vadim |last2=Limanov |first2=Kirill |date=2019 |title=Portuguese Anarchist in the 'Tropical Siberia' |url=https://ahl.igh.ru/issues/12/articles/85?locale=en |journal=[[Latin-American Historical Almanac]] |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=78–106 |doi=10.32608/2305-8773-2019-22-1-78-106 |s2cid=200077700 |doi-access=free |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008033816/https://ahl.igh.ru/issues/12/articles/85?locale=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Centro de Instrução do Marobo (restored).jpg|thumb|Portuguese soldiers in East Timor]]
Although Portugal was neutral during [[World War II]], in December 1941, Portuguese Timor was occupied by [[Australia]]n and Dutch forces, which were expecting a [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] invasion. This Australian military intervention dragged Portuguese Timor into the Pacific War but it also slowed the Japanese expansion. When the Japanese did occupy Timor, in February 1942, a 400-strong Dutch-Australian force and large numbers of Timorese volunteers engaged them in [[Battle of Timor (1942–43)|a one-year guerrilla campaign]]. After the allied evacuation in February 1943 the East Timorese continued fighting the Japanese, with comparatively little [[collaborationism|collaboration]] with the enemy taking place. This assistance cost the civilian population dearly: Japanese forces burned many villages and seized food supplies. The Japanese occupation resulted in the deaths of 40,000–70,000 Timorese.

Under Japanese rule, there were changes to the administrative structures that created larger districts (the former kingdoms) and a reduced number of ''suco''.<ref name="Scambary2021"/>{{rp|280}}

Portuguese Timor was handed back to Portugal after the war, but Portugal continued to neglect the colony. Very little investment was made in infrastructure, education and healthcare. The colony was declared an 'Overseas Province' of the Portuguese Republic in 1955. Locally, authority rested with the Portuguese Governor and the Legislative Council, as well as local chiefs or ''liurai''. Only a small minority of Timorese were educated, and even fewer went on to university in Portugal (there were no universities in the territory until 2000).

During this time, [[Indonesia]] did not express any interest in Portuguese Timor, despite the anti-colonial rhetoric of President [[Sukarno]]. This was partly as Indonesia was preoccupied with gaining control of [[West Irian]], now called Papua, which had been retained by the [[Netherlands]] after Indonesian independence. In fact, at the [[United Nations]], Indonesian diplomats stressed that their country did not seek control over any territory outside the former Netherlands East Indies, explicitly mentioning Portuguese Timor.

In 1960 East Timor [[Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples|gained the right]] to self-determination under international law, as a [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories|Non-Self-Governing Territory]]. It retained this status, with Portugal as the administering power, throughout Indonesian rule.<ref name="Drew2001">{{cite journal |last1=Drew |first1=Catriona |title=The East Timor Story: International Law on Trial |journal=European Journal of International Law |date=1 September 2001 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=651–684 |doi=10.1093/ejil/12.4.651 |url=https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/12/4/651/488938 |doi-access=free |access-date=2 July 2022 |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702142257/https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/12/4/651/488938 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|656}}

The small [[1959 Viqueque rebellion]] saw attempts by the rebels to seek support outside their local area, although it did not overcome local rivalries. Its calls for better services and rights led to some changes in Portuguese policy such as increases in education and civil employment. Basic schooling was increased, and more advanced schools that included secondary education were available to the most Portuguese individuals: those considered [[mestiço]] or [[assimilado]]. A catholic school in [[Soibada]], the [[Seminary of Our Lady of Fatima]] in [[Dare, Timor-Leste|Dare]], and the [[Liceu Dr. Francisco Machado]] were important educational establishments during this time. Fatumaca College was established near [[Baucau]] in 1969, and an ''Escola Tecnica'' was set up in 1973. The politicians who came to prominence at the end of Portuguese rule tended to have studied in these schools, and some cited the Viqueque rebellion as an inspiration.<ref name="Leach2016">{{cite book |last1=Leach |first1=Michael |title=Nation-Building and National Identity in Timor-Leste |date=8 December 2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781315311647 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iiglDwAAQBAJ |access-date=2 July 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326152316/https://books.google.com/books?id=iiglDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|42–43}} This "Timorisation", which resulted in greater local participation in administration and the military, remained mostly limited to the aforementioned upper class, and did not substantially affect the majority of the population.<ref name="Croissant2020">{{cite book |author1=Aurel Croissant |author2=Rebecca Abu Sharkh |editor1-last=Croissant |editor1-first=Aurel |editor2-last=Hellmann |editor2-first=Olli |title=Stateness and Democracy in East Asia |date=21 May 2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108495745 |chapter=As Good as It Gets? Stateness and Democracy in East Timor |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YV3bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |access-date=3 July 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326162324/https://books.google.com/books?id=YV3bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|205}}