Editing History of Southeast Asia (section)

==Prehistory==
{{further|Genetic history of Southeast Asia}}

===Paleolithic===
{{See also|Archaic humans in Southeast Asia|Peopling of Southeast Asia|Negrito}}
[[File:The main entrance to the Niah Caves at sunset..jpg|thumb|left|[[Niah National Park|Niah Cave]] entrance at sunset]]
The region was already inhabited by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' from approximately 1,500,000 years ago during the [[Middle Pleistocene]] age.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Bellwood|first=Peter|title=First Islanders: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia|date=2017-04-10|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-119-25154-5|edition=1|language=en}}</ref> Data analysis of stone tool [[Assemblage (archaeology)|assemblages]] and fossil discoveries from [[Indonesia]], [[South China|Southern China]], the [[Philippines]], [[Sri Lanka]] and more recently [[Cambodia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.d.dccam.org/Projects/Genocide/pdf/Speaker_Series_(5).pdf |title=Results of New Research at La-ang Spean Prehistoric Site |publisher=dccam org |access-date=2 January 2017}}</ref> and [[Malaysia]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j4NR2q7FWeVMwDjWVzYcF_R4qXEg |title=Malaysian scientists find stone tools 'oldest in Southeast Asia' |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=31 January 2009 |access-date=2 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218222617/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j4NR2q7FWeVMwDjWVzYcF_R4qXEg |archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref> has established ''Homo erectus'' migration routes and episodes of presence as early as 120,000 years ago, with even older isolated finds dating back to 1.8 million years ago.{{sfnm|1a1=Swisher|1y=1994|2a1=Dennell|2y=2010|2p=262}}{{sfn|Dennell|2010|p=266|ps=, citing {{harvnb|Morwood|2003}}}} [[Java Man]] (''Homo erectus erectus'') and ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' both discovered on Indonesia’s islands, attest to a sustained regional presence and isolation, long enough for notable diversification of the species' specifics. [[Rock art]] (parietal art) dating from 40,000 to 60,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of [[Sulawesi]] and [[Borneo]] ([[Kalimantan]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aubert |first=M. |display-authors=et al. |date=11 December 2019 |title=Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art. |journal=Nature |volume=576 |issue=7787 |pages=442–445 |bibcode=2019Natur.576..442A |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1806-y |pmid=31827284 |s2cid=209311825}}</ref><ref>[https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/11/the-worlds-oldest-figurative-drawing-depicts-a-wounded-animal/ Kiona N. Smith (11/9/2018) What the world’s oldest figurative drawing reveals about human migration]</ref> ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' also lived in the area up until at least 50,000 years ago, after which they became extinct.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Morwood, M. J.|author2=Brown, P.|author3=Jatmiko|author4=Sutikna, T.|author5=Wahyu Saptomo, E.|author6=Westaway, K. E.|author7=Rokus Awe Due|author8=Roberts, R. G.|author9=Maeda, T.|author10=Wasisto, S.|author11=Djubiantono, T.|date=13 October 2005|title=Further evidence for small-bodied hominins from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=437|issue=7061|pages=1012–1017|bibcode=2005Natur.437.1012M|doi=10.1038/nature04022|pmid=16229067|s2cid=4302539}}</ref> Distinct ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'' groups, ancestral to East-Eurasian (East Asian-related) populations, and South-Eurasian (Papuan-related) populations, reached the region by 50,000{{Nbsp}}BCE to 70,000{{Nbsp}}BCE, with some arguing earlier.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Reich |first2=David |date=April 2017 |title=A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=889–902 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msw293 |issn=0737-4038 |pmc=5400393 |pmid=28074030}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=20 August 2012 |title=Oldest bones from modern humans in Asia discovered |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/oldest-bones-from-modern-humans-in-asia-discovered/ |access-date=21 August 2016 |publisher=CBSNews}}</ref> These immigrants might have, to some extent, merged and reproduced with members of the archaic population of ''[[Homo erectus]]'', as the fossil discoveries in the [[Tam Pa Ling Cave]] suggest.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Demeter |first1=Fabrice |last2=Shackelford |first2=Laura |last3=Westaway |first3=Kira |last4=Duringer |first4=Philippe |last5=Bacon |first5=Anne-Marie |last6=Ponche |first6=Jean-Luc |last7=Wu |first7=Xiujie |last8=Sayavongkhamdy |first8=Thongsa |last9=Zhao |first9=Jian-Xin |last10=Barnes |first10=Lani |last11=Boyon |first11=Marc |last12=Sichanthongtip |first12=Phonephanh |last13=Sénégas |first13=Frank |last14=Karpoff |first14=Anne-Marie |last15=Patole-Edoumba |first15=Elise |date=7 April 2015 |title=Early Modern Humans and Morphological Variation in Southeast Asia: Fossil Evidence from Tam Pa Ling, Laos |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0121193 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1021193D |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0121193 |pmc=4388508 |pmid=25849125 |doi-access=free |last16=Coppens |first16=Yves |last17=Braga |first17=José |last18=Macchiarelli |first18=Roberto}}</ref> During much of this time the present-day islands of western Indonesia were joined into a single landmass known as [[Sundaland]] due to lower sea levels.

[[File:Leang Panninge genetic.png|upright=1.1|thumb|Genetic difference between Leang Panninge(one [[Holocene]] hunter-gatherer in Maritime Southeast Asia) and East and southeast Asian and Near Oceanian groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carlhoff|first1=Selina|last2=Duli|first2=Akin|last3=Nägele|first3=Kathrin|last4=Nur|first4=Muhammad|last5=Skov|first5=Laurits|last6=Sumantri|first6=Iwan|last7=Oktaviana|first7=Adhi Agus|last8=Hakim|first8=Budianto|last9=Burhan|first9=Basran|last10=Syahdar|first10=Fardi Ali|last11=McGahan|first11=David P.|date=August 2021|title=Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7873|pages=543–547|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6|issn=1476-4687|pmid=34433944|pmc=8387238|bibcode=2021Natur.596..543C|hdl-access=free|hdl=10072/407535}}</ref>]]
Ancient remains of hunter-gatherers in Maritime Southeast Asia, such as one [[Holocene]] hunter-gatherer from cave of Leang Panninge in [[South Sulawesi]], had ancestry from both the South-Eurasian lineage (represented by [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]] and [[Aboriginal Australians]]), and the East-Eurasian lineage (represented by [[East Asian people|East Asians]]). The hunter-gatherer individual had approximately 50% "Basal-East Asian" ancestry and was positioned in between modern East Asians and Papuans of Oceania. The authors writing about the individual concluded that East Asian-related ancestry expanded from [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] much earlier than previously suggested, as early as 25,000{{Nbsp}}BCE, long before the expansion of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carlhoff|first1=Selina|last2=Duli|first2=Akin|last3=Nägele|first3=Kathrin|last4=Nur|first4=Muhammad|last5=Skov|first5=Laurits|last6=Sumantri|first6=Iwan|last7=Oktaviana|first7=Adhi Agus|last8=Hakim|first8=Budianto|last9=Burhan|first9=Basran|last10=Syahdar|first10=Fardi Ali|last11=McGahan|first11=David P.|date=August 2021|title=Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7873|pages=543–547|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6 |pmc=8387238 |issn=1476-4687|pmid=34433944|bibcode=2021Natur.596..543C|quote=The [[qpGraph]] analysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (Fig. 3c, Supplementary Figs. 7–11).|hdl-access=free|hdl=10072/407535|s2cid=237305537}}</ref>

Distinctive [[East Asian people|Basal-East Asian]] (East-Eurasian) ancestry was recently found to have originated in [[Mainland Southeast Asia]] at ~50,000{{Nbsp}}BCE, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. Geneflow of East-Eurasian ancestry into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]] is estimated to ~25,000{{Nbsp}}BCE (possibly as early as 50,000{{Nbsp}}BCE). The pre-[[Neolithic]] South-Eurasian populations of Maritime Southeast Asia were largely replaced by the expansion of various East-Eurasian populations, beginning about 25,000{{Nbsp}}BCE from [[Mainland Southeast Asia]]. Southeast Asia was dominated by East Asian-related ancestry already in 15,000{{Nbsp}}BCE, predating the expansion of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian peoples]].<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>

[[File:Peopling of eurasia.jpg|thumb|left|Representation of the [[Southern Dispersal|coastal migration model]], with the indication of the later development of [[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|mitochondrial haplogroups]]]]
Ocean drops of up to {{convert|120|m|ft|2|abbr=on}} below the present level during [[Pleistocene]] glacial periods revealed the vast lowlands known as [[Sundaland]], enabling hunter-gatherer populations to freely access insular Southeast Asia via extensive terrestrial corridors. Modern human presence in the [[Niah National Park|Niah cave]] on [[East Malaysia]] dates back to 40,000 years&nbsp;[[Before Present|BP]], although archaeological documentation of the early settlement period suggests only brief occupation phases.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Barker|first1=Graeme|last2=Barton|first2=Huw|last3=Bird|first3=Michael|last4=Daly|first4=Patrick|last5=Datan|first5=Ipoi|last6=Dykes|first6=Alan|last7=Farr|first7=Lucy|last8=Gilbertson|first8=David|last9=Harrisson|first9=Barbara|last10=Hunt|first10=Chris|last11=Higham|first11=Tom|last12=Kealhofer|first12=Lisa|last13=Krigbaum|first13=John|last14=Lewis|first14=Helen|last15=McLaren|first15=Sue|last16=Paz|first16=Victor|last17=Pike|first17=Alistair|last18=Piper|first18=Phil|last19=Pyatt|first19=Brian|last20=Rabett|first20=Ryan|last21=Reynolds|first21=Tim|last22=Rose|first22=Jim|last23=Rushworth|first23=Garry|last24=Stephens|first24=Mark|last25=Stringer|first25=Chris|last26=Thompson|first26=Jill|last27=Turney|first27=Chris|title=The 'human revolution' in lowland tropical Southeast Asia: the antiquity and behavior of anatomically modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo)|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|date=March 2007|volume=52|issue=3|pages=243–261|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.011|pmid=17161859|bibcode=2007JHumE..52..243B }}</ref> However, author [[Charles Higham (archaeologist)|Charles Higham]] argues that despite glacial periods, modern humans were able to cross the sea barrier beyond [[Java]] and [[Timor]], who around 45,000 years ago left traces in the [[New Guinea Highlands|Ivane Valley]] in eastern [[New Guinea]] "at an altitude of {{convert|2000|m|ft|2|abbr=on}} exploiting [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] and [[pandanus]], hunting and making stone tools between 43,000 and 49,000 years ago."<ref name="Higham Prehistory">{{cite web|author=Charles Higham|title=Hunter-Gatherers in Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to the Present|url=http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2050&context=humbiol|access-date=2 January 2017|newspaper=Digitalcommons}}</ref>

The oldest habitation discovered in the [[Philippines]] is located at the [[Tabon Caves]] and dates back to approximately 50,000 years BP. Items found there such as burial jars, earthenware, jade ornaments and other jewellery, stone tools, animal bones and human fossils date back to 47,000 years&nbsp;BP. Unearthed human remains are approximately 24,000 years old.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1860/ |title=The Tabon Cave Complex and all of Lipuun – UNESCO World Heritage Centre |newspaper=Whc.unesco.org |access-date= 22 February 2017}}</ref>

Signs of an early tradition are discernible in the [[Hoabinhian]], the name given to an industry and cultural continuity of stone tools and flaked cobble artefacts that appear around 10,000&nbsp;BP in caves and rock shelters first described in [[Hòa Bình district|Hòa Bình]], [[Vietnam]], and later documented in [[Terengganu]], [[Malaysia]], [[Sumatra]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Yunnan]], southern [[China]]. Research emphasises considerable variations in quality and nature of the artefacts, influenced by region-specific environmental conditions and proximity and access to local resources. The Hoabinhian culture accounts for the first verified ritual burials in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marwick|first=B.|title=Multiple Optima in Hoabinhian flaked stone artifact palaeoeconomics and palaeoecology at two archaeological sites in Northwest Thailand |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|date=2013 |volume=32|issue=4|pages=553–564|doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2013.08.004|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ji|first1=Xueping|last2=Kuman|first2=Kathleen|last3=Clarke|first3=R.J.|last4=Forestier|first4=Hubert|last5=Li|first5=Yinghua|last6=Ma|first6=Juan|last7=Qiu|first7=Kaiwei|last8=Li|first8=Hao|last9=Wu|first9=Yun|title=The oldest Hoabinhian technocomplex in Asia (43.5 ka) at Xiaodong rockshelter, Yunnan Province, southwest China|journal=Quaternary International|date=1 December 2015|volume=400|pages=166–174|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.09.080|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287966708|access-date=2 January 2017|bibcode=2016QuInt.400..166J}}</ref>

===Neolithic migrations===
[[File:The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Indonesia and the geographic distribution of sites that have produced red-slipped and cord-marked pottery.png|thumb|Proposed routes of [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] migrations into [[Indonesia]]<ref name="Simanjuntak2017">{{cite book|first1=Truman|last1=Simanjuntak|authorlink=Harry Truman Simanjuntak|editor1-first= Philip J.|editor1-last= Piper, Hirofumi Matsumura and David Bulbeck|editor2-first= Hirofumi |editor2-last=Matsumura |editor3-first= David |editor3-last=Bulbeck|title =New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory|chapter =The Western Route Migration: A Second Probable Neolithic Diffusion to Indonesia|publisher =ANU Press|series =terra australis|volume=45|year =2017|isbn =9781760460952|chapter-url =http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n2320/html/ch11.xhtml?referer=&page=18}}</ref>]]

The [[Neolithic]] was characterized by several migrations into [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Mainland]] and [[Island Southeast Asia]] from southern [[China]] by [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], [[Austroasiatic]], [[Kra-Dai]] and [[Hmong-Mien]]-speakers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0b-6wpalR40C&pg=PA102|page=102|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume One, Part One |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66369-4 |last1=Tarling |first1=Nicholas |year=1999 }}</ref>
[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|thumb|right|The [[Austronesian Expansion]]<br>(3500&nbsp;BCE{{En dash}}1200&nbsp;CE)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chambers |first1=Geoffrey K. |title=eLS |date=2013 |publisher=American Cancer Society |isbn=978-0-470-01590-2 |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2 |language=en |chapter=Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians}}</ref>]]

The most widespread migration event was the [[Austronesian expansion]], which began around 5,500&nbsp;[[Before Present|BP]] (3,500&nbsp;BCE) from [[Taiwan]] and coastal southern [[China]]. Due to their early invention of ocean-going [[outrigger boat]]s and voyaging [[catamaran]]s, Austronesians rapidly colonized [[Island Southeast Asia]], before spreading further into [[Micronesia]], [[Melanesia]], [[Polynesia]], [[Madagascar]] and the [[Comoros]]. They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island Southeast Asia, intermarrying with the indigenous [[Negrito]] and [[Papuan People|Papuan]] peoples to varying degrees, giving rise to modern [[Islander Southeast Asians]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesians]], [[Polynesians]], [[Melanesians]] and [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/blust1992austronesian.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/blust1992austronesian.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=THE AUSTRONESIAN SETTLEMENT OF MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA |publisher=Sealang |access-date=2 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lipson|first1=Mark|last2=Loh|first2=Po-Ru|last3=Patterson|first3=Nick|last4=Moorjani|first4=Priya|last5=Ko|first5=Ying-Chin|last6=Stoneking|first6=Mark|last7=Berger|first7=Bonnie|last8=Reich|first8=David|title=Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia|journal=Nature Communications|date=19 August 2014|volume=5|pages=4689|doi=10.1038/ncomms5689|pmid=25137359|pmc=4143916|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4689L}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.omnivoyage.org/Austronesian_SE_Asia.htm |title=Austronesian Southeast Asia: An outline of contemporary issues |publisher=Omnivoyage |access-date=2 January 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160925123531/http://www.omnivoyage.org/Austronesian_SE_Asia.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Blench%20Springer%20Handbook%20chapter%20final%20Dec%202014.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Blench%20Springer%20Handbook%20chapter%20final%20Dec%202014.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Origins of Ethnolinguistic Identity in Southeast Asia  |publisher=Roger Blench |access-date=2 January 2017}}</ref>

The [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] migration wave involved the [[Mon people|Mon]] and [[Khmer people|Khmer]] peoples and migrated to the broad riverine floodplains of [[Burma]], [[Indochina]] and [[Malaysia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sidwell |first1=Paul |last2=Blench |first2=Roger |chapter-url=http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/SR09/Sidwell%20Blench%20offprint.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |chapter=The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis |editor-last=Enfield |editor-first=N.J. |title=Dynamics of Human Diversity |pages=317–345 |place=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |date=2011 |isbn=9780858836389 }}</ref>{{Failed verification|reason=This article actually proposes a dispersal from within Southeast Asia circa 3800 BP.|date=August 2022}}

===Early agricultural societies===
{{See also|Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia|Domestication of rice}}
[[File:Likely routes of early rice transfer, and possible language family homelands (archaeological sites in China and SE Asia shown).png|thumb|Possible [[Urheimat|language family homelands]] and likely routes of early rice transfer ({{Circa|3500{{en dash}}500{{nbsp}}BCE}}). The approximate coastlines during the early [[Holocene]] are shown in lighter blue.<ref name="Bellwood2011">{{cite journal |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Checkered Prehistory of Rice Movement Southwards as a Domesticated Cereal—from the Yangzi to the Equator |journal=Rice |date=9 December 2011 |volume=4 |issue=3–4 |pages=93–103 |doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9068-9 |s2cid=44675525 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/81529950.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/81529950.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi-access=free |bibcode=2011Rice....4...93B }}</ref>]]

Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised as ''Agrarian kingdoms,''<ref>{{cite book|author=J. Stephen Lansing|title=Perfect Order: Recognizing Complexity in Bali|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6H-kCvCCwgC&pg=PA22|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-15626-2|page=22}}</ref> developed an economy by around 500&nbsp;BCE based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "[[Thalassocracy|thalassian]]" zone<ref name=socev/> shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like the [[Pyu city-states]] in the [[Irrawaddy River]] valley, the [[Van Lang|Văn Lang kingdom]] in the [[Red River Delta]] and [[Funan (Southeast Asia)|Funan]] around the lower [[Mekong]].<ref name=funan/> Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE, endured until 258&nbsp;BCE under the [[Hồng Bàng dynasty]], as part of the [[Đông Sơn culture]] that sustained a dense and organised population that produced an elaborate [[Bronze Age]] industry.<ref name=angk>{{cite web |url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf |title=Pre-Angkorian Settlement Trends in Cambodia's Mekong Delta and the Lower Mekong |publisher=Anthropology.hawaii.edu |access-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172512/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Stark/pdfs/annual_review_06.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Stark/pdfs/annual_review_06.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Early Mainland Southeast Asian Landscapes in the First Millennium |publisher=Anthropology.hawaii.edu |access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.<ref name=angk/><ref name=socev>{{cite book|author=F. Tichelman|title=The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGEyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-94-009-8896-5|page=41}}</ref>

Though [[millet]] and rice cultivation was introduced around 2000&nbsp;BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas. Many tribal communities of the aboriginal [[Australoid race|Australo-Melanesian]] settlers continued a lifestyle of mixed sustenance until the modern era.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hunt|first1=C.O.|last2=Rabett|first2=R.J.|title=Holocene landscape intervention and plant food production strategies in island and mainland Southeast Asia|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|date=November 2014|volume=51|pages=22–33|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.12.011|doi-access=free|bibcode=2014JArSc..51...22H }}</ref> Many areas in Southeast Asia participated in the [[Maritime Jade Road]], a diverse sea-based trade network which functioned for 3,000 years, mostly in Southeast Asia, between 2000&nbsp;BCE to 1000&nbsp;CE.<ref>Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan’s relations with the Philippines date back millenia, so it’s a mystery that it’s not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref>

===Bronze Age Southeast Asia===
[[File:Trong dong Dong Son.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dong Son drum|Đông Sơn drum]]]]

The earliest known evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found at [[Ban Chiang]] in north-east Thailand and among the [[Phung Nguyen culture|Phùng Nguyên culture]] of northern Vietnam around 2000&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Higham|first1=Charles|last2=Higham|first2=Thomas|last3=Ciarla|first3=Roberto|last4=Douka|first4=Katerina|last5=Kijngam|first5=Amphan|last6=Rispoli|first6=Fiorella|title=The Origins of the Bronze Age of Southeast Asia|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|date=10 December 2011|volume=24|issue=4|pages=227–274|doi=10.1007/s10963-011-9054-6|s2cid=162300712|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257607857|access-date=11 February 2017|via=Researchgate.net}}</ref>

The [[Dong Son culture|Đông Sơn]] culture established a tradition of bronze production and the manufacture of evermore refined bronze and iron objects, such as plows, axes and sickles with shaft holes, socketed arrows and spearheads and small ornamented items.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newhistorian.com/how-and-when-the-bronze-age-reached-south-east-asia/4961/ | title =How and When the Bronze Age Reached South East Asia | publisher = New Historian |date=1 October 2015 |author= Daryl Worthington |access-date= 9 March 2018 }}</ref> By about 500&nbsp;BCE, large and delicately decorated bronze drums of remarkable quality, weighing more than {{convert|70|kg|abbr=on}}, were produced in the laborious [[lost-wax casting]] process. This industry of highly sophisticated metal processing was developed independent of Chinese or Indian influence. Historians relate these achievements to the presence of organized, centralized and hierarchical communities and a large population.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Southeast-Asia |title=history of Southeast Asia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=11 February 2017}}</ref>

===Pottery culture===
[[File:Buni Culture Pottery 2.jpg|thumb|[[Buni culture|Buni]] clay pottery]]
Between 1000&nbsp;BCE and 100&nbsp;CE, the [[Sa Huỳnh culture]] flourished along the south-central coast of [[Vietnam]].<ref>[[John N. Miksic]], Geok Yian Goh, Sue O Connor – ''Rethinking Cultural Resource Management in Southeast Asia'' 2011 Page 251 "This site dates from the fifth to first century BCE and it is one of the earliest sites of the [[Sa Huỳnh]] culture in Thu Bồn Valley (Reinecke et al. 2002, 153–216); 2) Lai Nghi is a prehistoric cemetery richly equipped with iron tools and weapons, ..."</ref> Ceramic jar burial sites that included grave goods have been discovered at various sites along the entire territory. Among large, thin-walled terracotta jars, ornamented and colorized cooking pots, glass items, [[nephrite|jade]] earrings and metal objects were deposited near the rivers and along the coast.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/7230641 |title=Excavations at Gò Cầm, Quảng Nam, 2000–3: Linyi and the Emergence of the Cham Kingdoms  |publisher=Academia.edu |author1=Ian Glover |author2=Nguyễn Kim Dung  |access-date=12 February 2017}}</ref>

The [[Buni culture]] is the name given to another early independent centre of refined [[pottery]] production that has been well documented on the basis of excavated burial gifts, deposited between 400&nbsp;BCE and 100&nbsp;CE in coastal north-western [[West Java|Java]].<ref name="Zahorka-2007">{{cite book| last = Zahorka| first = Herwig| publisher = Yayasan cipta Loka Caraka| title = The Sunda Kingdoms of West Java, From Tarumanagara to Pakuan Pajajaran with Royal Center of Bogor, Over 1000 Years of Propsperity and Glory| year = 2007}}</ref> The objects and artifacts  of the Buni tradition are known for their originality and remarkable quality of incised and geometric decors.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Pierre-Yves Manguin|author2=A. Mani|author3=Geoff Wade|title=Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross-cultural Exchange|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ni9AlOLTFZYC&pg=PA124|year=2011|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4345-10-1|page=124}}</ref> Its resemblance to the Sa Huỳnh culture and the fact that it represents the earliest ''Indian Rouletted Ware'' recorded in Southeast Asia are subjects of ongoing research.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9xVZbxWNo40C&pg=PA246 | author = Manguin, Pierre-Yves and Agustijanto Indrajaya | title = The Archaeology of Batujaya (West Java, Indonesia):an Interim Report, in Uncovering Southeast Asia's past|isbn=978-9971-69-351-0|page=246|publisher=NUS Press| date = January 2006 }}</ref>