Editing History of South America (section)

==Pre-Columbian era==
{{Main|Pre-Columbian era#South America}}

=== Earliest inhabitants ===
The Americas are thought to have been first inhabited by people from eastern Asia who crossed the [[Bering Land Bridge]] to present-day Alaska; the land separated and the continents are divided by the [[Bering Strait]]. Over the course of millennia, three waves of migrants spread to all parts of the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Native Americans migrated to the New World in three waves, Harvard-led DNA analysis shows &#124; Boston.com |url=https://www.boston.com/uncategorized/noprimarytagmatch/2012/07/11/native-americans-migrated-to-the-new-world-in-three-waves-harvard-led-dna-analysis-shows |website=www.boston.com}}</ref> Genetic and linguistic evidence has shown that the last wave of migrant peoples settled across the northern tier, and did not reach South America.

Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is the [[Monte Verde|Monte Verde II]] site in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pino |first1=Mario |last2=Dillehay |first2=Tom D. |date=June 2023 |title=Monte Verde II: an assessment of new radiocarbon dates and their sedimentological context |journal=Antiquity |language=en |volume=97 |issue=393 |pages=524–540 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2023.32 |issn=0003-598X|doi-access=free }}</ref> From around 13,000 years ago, the [[Fishtail projectile point]] style became widespread across South America, with its disppearance around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's [[megafauna]] as part of the [[Quaternary extinction event]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Prates |first1=Luciano |last2=Perez |first2=S. Ivan |date=2021-04-12 |title=Late Pleistocene South American megafaunal extinctions associated with rise of Fishtail points and human population |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=2175 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-22506-4 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=8041891 |pmid=33846353|bibcode=2021NatCo..12.2175P }}</ref>

===Agriculture and domestication of animals===
The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to circa 6500 BCE, when [[potato]]es, [[Chili pepper|chilies]] and [[bean]]s began to be cultivated for food in the [[Amazon Basin]]. Pottery evidence suggests that [[manioc]], which remains a staple food supply today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BCE.<ref name="O'Brien, Patrick 2005. pp. 25">O'Brien, Patrick. (General Editor). ''Oxford Atlas of World History''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 25</ref>

South American cultures began domesticating [[llamas]] and [[alpacas]] in the highlands of the [[Andes]] circa 3500 BCE. These animals were used for both transportation and meat; their fur was shorn or collected to use to make clothing.<ref name="O'Brien, Patrick 2005. pp. 25"/> [[Guinea pig]]s were also domesticated as a food source at this time.<ref>Diamond, Jared. ''Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies''. New York: Norton, 1999, p. 100</ref>

By 2000 BCE, many agrarian village communities had developed throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, with fish being the primary source of food for those communities. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of agrarian societies.<ref name="O'Brien, Patrick 2005. pp. 25"/> The food crops were [[quinoa]], [[maize|corn]], [[lima bean]]s, [[common bean]]s, [[peanut]]s, [[manioc]], [[sweet potato]]es, [[potato]]es, [[oxalis tuberosa|oca]] and [[squash (plant)|squashes]].<ref>Diamond, Jared. ''Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies''. New York: Norton, 1999 (pp. 126–27)</ref> [[Cotton]] was also grown and was particularly important as the only major fiber crop.<ref name="O'Brien, Patrick 2005. pp. 25"/>

Among the earliest permanent settlements, dated to 4700 BCE is the [[Huaca Prieta]] site on the coast of Peru, and at 3500 BCE the [[Valdivia culture]] in Ecuador. Other groups also formed permanent settlements. Among those groups were the [[Muisca people|Muisca]] or "Muysca," and the Tairona, located in present-day Colombia. The [[Cañari]] of Ecuador, [[Quechua people|Quechua]] of Peru, and [[Aymara people|Aymara]] of Bolivia were the three most important Native peoples who developed societies of sedentary agriculture in South America. <!-- In what way important? What does this mean? -->

In the last two thousand years, there may have been contact with the [[Polynesia]]ns who sailed to and from the continent across the South Pacific Ocean. The sweet potato, which originated in South America, [[Sweet potato#Origin, distribution and diversity|spread]] through some areas of the Pacific. There is no genetic legacy of human contact.<ref>Howe, Kerry R., ''The Quest for Origins,'' Penguin Books, 2003, {{ISBN|0-14-301857-4}}, pp. 81, 129</ref>

[[File:Índios isolados no Acre 5.jpg|thumb|Members of an uncontacted tribe encountered in the [[Brazil]]ian state of [[Acre (state)|Acre]] in 2009]]
====Caral-Supe / Norte Chico====
[[File:Caral 1.JPG|thumb|220px|[[Caral]]]]
On the north-western coast of present-day [[Peru]], the [[Caral-Supe civilization]], also known as the [[Norte Chico civilization]] emerged as one of six civilizations to develop independently in the world. It was roughly contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids. It preceded the civilization of [[Mesoamerica]] by two millennia. It is believed to have been the only civilization dependent on fishing rather than agriculture to support its population.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1059519|title=Dating Caral, a Preceramic Site in the Supe Valley on the Central Coast of Peru|first1=Ruth Shady|last1=Solis|first2=Jonathan|last2=Haas|first3=Winifred|last3=Creamer|date=April 27, 2001|journal=Science|volume=292|issue=5517|pages=723–726|via=science.sciencemag.org|doi=10.1126/science.1059519|pmid=11326098|bibcode=2001Sci...292..723S|s2cid=10172918}}</ref>

The [[Caral|Caral Supe]] complex is one of the larger Norte Chico sites and has been dated to 27th century BCE. It is noteworthy for having absolutely no signs of warfare. It was contemporary with urbanism's rise in [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-04/AAft-Oeoc-2604101.php|title=Oldest evidence of city life in the Americas reported in Science, early urban planners emerge as power players|website=EurekAlert!|access-date=2016-03-22|archive-date=2017-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213083019/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-04/AAft-Oeoc-2604101.php}}</ref>

===Cañari===
[[File:Ingapirca Canari structures.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Ingapirca]], [[Ecuador]], Caħari ruins: astronomical stone (left), tomb (right) and reconstructed house (background)]]

The [[Cañari]] were the indigenous natives of today's Ecuadorian provinces of [[Cañar Province|Cañar]] and [[Azuay Province|Azuay]] at the time of European contact. They were an elaborate civilization with advanced architecture and religious belief. Most of their remains were either burned or destroyed from attacks by the [[Inca]] and later the Spaniards. Their old city "Guapondelig", was replaced twice, first by the [[Inca Empire|Incan]] city of Tomipamba, and later by the colonial city of [[Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cuenca.com.ec/cuencanew/hist%C3%B3ria-0 |title=Historia |publisher=Fundación Municipal "Turismo Para Cuenca" |access-date=13 August 2015 |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517005806/http://www.cuenca.com.ec/cuencanew/hist%C3%B3ria-0 |archive-date=17 May 2015 }}</ref> The city was believed by the Spanish to be the site of [[El Dorado]], the city of gold from the mythology of Colombia.

The Cañari were most notable in having repulsed the Incan invasion with fierce resistance for many years until they fell to Tupac Yupanqui. It is said that the Inca strategically married the Cañari princess Paccha to conquer the people. Many of their descendants still reside in [[Cañar Province|Cañar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://alisonanddon.com/2014/08/11/the-canari-of-ecuador-and-a-palace-and-a-pig/|title=The Cañari of Ecuador, a 'palace' and a pig.|date=August 12, 2014}}</ref>

=== Chibchan Nations ===
[[File:Chibchan languages distribution.png|thumb|right|250px|Distribution of [[Chibcha language|Chibchan languages]] in southern Central America and northwestern South America, present-day Colombia]]
{{see also|Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations}}
The [[Chibcha language|Chibcha-speaking]] communities were the most numerous, the most extended by territory, and the most socio-economically developed of the Pre-Hispanic Colombian cultures. They were divided into two linguistic subgroups; the Arwako-Chimila languages, with the [[Tairona]], [[Kankuamo people|Kankuamo]], [[Kogi people|Kogi]], [[Arhuaco people|Arhuaco]], [[Chimila people|Chimila]] and [[Chitarero people]] and the Guna-Colombian languages with [[Guna people|Guna]], [[Nutabes people|Nutabe]], [[Motilon people|Motilon]], [[U'wa people|U'wa]], [[Lache people|Lache]], [[Guane people|Guane]], [[Sutagao people|Sutagao]] and [[Muisca people|Muisca]].<ref name=GlottologChibchan>{{cite web|url=http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/core1252|title=Glottolog 2.7 – Core Chibchan|work=glottolog.org}}</ref>

==== Muisca ====
[[File:Muisca Fine Golden Figures - Museo del Oro.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The fine goldworking of the Muisca formed the basis for the expedition from the Caribbean coast into the heart of the Andes, where they developed an advanced civilisation based on [[Muisca agriculture|agriculture]], [[Women in Muisca society|salt production]] and [[Muisca economy#Trade|trade]]]]
{{main|Muisca people|Muisca Confederation}}
Of these indigenous groups, the Muisca were the most advanced and formed one of the four grand civilisations in the Americas.<ref>Ocampo López, 2007, p.26</ref> With the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] in Peru, they constituted the two developed and specialised societies of South America. The Muisca, meaning "people" or "person" in their version of the Chibcha language; ''Muysccubun'',<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://muysca.cubun.org/muysca ''Muysca''] – Muysccubun Dictionary Online</ref> inhabited the [[Altiplano Cundiboyacense]], the high plateau in the [[Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)|Eastern Ranges]] of the Colombian [[Andes]] and surrounding valleys, such as the [[Tenza Valley]].<ref name=websiteTenza>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenza-boyaca.gov.co/informacion_general.shtml|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150602152114/http://www.tenza-boyaca.gov.co/informacion_general.shtml|title=Official website Tenza|archive-date=June 2, 2015}}</ref> Commonly set at 800 CE, their history succeeded the [[Herrera Period]].<ref>Kruschek, 2003</ref> The people were organised in a loose confederation of [[Muisca rulers|rulers]], later called the [[Muisca Confederation]].<ref name=Gamboa>Gamboa Mendoza, 2016</ref> At the time of the [[Spanish conquest of the Muisca|Spanish conquest]], their reign spread across the modern departments [[Cundinamarca Department|Cundinamarca]] and [[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]] with small parts of southern [[Santander Department|Santander]] with a surface area of approximately {{convert|25000|km2|sqmi}} and a total population of between 300,000 and two million individuals.<ref name=pop>Although sources state "47,000", this cannot be correct as that would be whole Boyacá and Cundinamarca and include Panche, Lache and Muzo</ref><ref>{{in lang|es}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20160616184156/https://taller5-histdiseno3b.wikispaces.com/file/view/INFORMACION+DISE%C3%91O+PRECOLOMBINO+MUISCA.pdf Muisca Confederation area almost 47,000 km<sup>2</sup>, page 12]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETh7T9ax6ekC&q=muiscas+2+millones&pg=PA43|title=Colombia: país fragmentado, sociedad dividida: su historia|first1=Marco|last1=Palacios|first2=Frank|last2=Safford|date=March 22, 2002|publisher=Grupo Editorial Norma|isbn=9789580465096|via=Google Books}}</ref>

The Muisca were known as "The Salt People", thanks to their extraction of and trade in [[halite]] from brines in various salt mines of which those in [[Zipaquirá]] and [[Nemocón]] are still the most important. This extraction process was the work of the [[Women in Muisca society|Muisca women]] exclusively and formed the backbone of their highly regarded [[Muisca economy#Trade|trading]] with other Chibcha-, Arawak- and Cariban-speaking neighboring indigenous groups.<ref>Groot, 2014</ref><ref name=Daza_p23>Daza, 2013, p. 23</ref> Trading was performed using salt, small cotton cloths and larger mantles and ceramics as [[barter trade]].<ref name=Francis_p44>Francis, 1993, p. 44</ref> Their economy was agricultural in nature, profiting from the fertile soils of the [[Pleistocene]] [[Lake Humboldt]] that existed on the Bogotá savanna until around 30,000 years BP. Their crops were cultivated using irrigation and drainage on elevated terraces and mounds.<ref name=Daza_p23/><ref>Ocampo López, 2007, p. 207</ref><ref>García, 2012, p. 43</ref> To the Spanish conquistadors they were best known for their advanced [[Muisca economy|gold-working]], as represented in the ''[[tunjo]]s'' (votive offer pieces), spread in [[List of Muisca museum collections|museum collections]] all around the world. The famous [[Muisca raft]], centerpiece in the collection of the [[Gold Museum, Bogotá|Museo del Oro]] in the Colombian capital [[Bogotá]], shows the skilled goldworking of the inhabitants of the Altiplano. The Muisca were the only pre-Columbian civilization known in South America to have used coins (''tejuelos'').<ref>Daza, 2013, p. 26</ref>

The gold and ''[[tumbaga]]'' (a gold-silver-copper alloy elaborated by the Muisca) created the legend of ''[[El Dorado]]''; the "land, city or man of gold". The Spanish conquistadors who landed in the Caribbean city of [[Santa Marta]] were informed of the rich gold culture and led by [[Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada]] and his brother [[Hernán Pérez de Quesada|Hernán Pérez]], organised the most strenuous of the Spanish conquests into the heart of the Andes in April 1536. After an expedition of a year, where 80% of the soldiers died due to the harsh climate, carnivores such as caimans and [[jaguar]]s and the frequent attacks of the indigenous peoples found along the route, [[Tisquesusa]], the ''[[zipa]]'' of Bacatá, on the [[Bogotá savanna]], was beaten by the Spanish on April 20, 1537, and died "bathing in his own blood", as prophesied by the [[mohan (legendary)|mohan]] Popón.<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://pueblosoriginarios.com/biografias/tisquesusa.html Biography Tisquesusa] – Pueblos Originarios</ref>

===The Amazon===
{{See also|Amazon rainforest#History|Chachapoya culture}}
[[File:Fazenda Colorada.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Geoglyphs on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest]]
For a long time, scholars believed that Amazon forests were occupied by small numbers of hunter-gatherer tribes. Archeologist [[Betty J. Meggers]] was a prominent proponent of this idea, as described in her book ''Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise''. However, recent archeological findings have suggested that the region was densely populated.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Margolis |first=Mac |date=2025-02-06 |title=Lost cities of the Amazon: how science is revealing ancient garden towns hidden in the rainforest |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/feb/06/ancient-garden-cities-amazon-indigenous-technologies-archaeology-lost-civilisations-environment-terra-preta |access-date=2025-03-01 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> From the 1970s, numerous [[geoglyph]]s have been discovered on deforested land dating between 0–1250 CE. Additional finds have led to conclusions that there were highly developed and populous cultures in the forests, organized as [[Pre-Columbian era|Pre-Columbian]] civilizations.<ref name="Simon Romero">{{Cite news |last=Romero |first=Simon |date=2012-01-14 |title=Once Hidden by Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazon's Lost World |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/15/world/americas/land-carvings-attest-to-amazons-lost-world.html |access-date=2024-07-06 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The BBC's ''[[Unnatural Histories (TV series)|Unnatural Histories]]'' claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine [[wilderness]], has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as [[forest gardening]].<ref name=bbc>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0122njp|title=Unnatural Histories – Amazon|publisher=BBC Four}}</ref> The discovery of the [[Upano Valley sites]] in present-day eastern Ecuador predate all known complex Amazonian societies.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Yuhas |first1=Alan |last2=Jiménez |first2=Jesus |date=2024-01-23 |title=Remnants of Sprawling Ancient Cities Are Found in the Amazon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/23/science/ecuador-amazon-cities-discovery.html |access-date=2024-07-06 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

The first European to travel the length of the [[Amazon River]] was [[Francisco de Orellana]] in 1542.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=A|title=Explorers of the Amazon|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1994|isbn=978-0-226-76337-8|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/explorersofamazo00smit}}</ref> The BBC documentary ''Unnatural Histories'' presents evidence that Francisco de Orellana, rather than exaggerating his claims as previously thought, was correct in his observations that an advanced civilization was flourishing along the Amazon in the 1540s. It is believed that the civilization was later devastated by the spread of infectious diseases from Europe, such as [[smallpox]], to which the natives had no immunity.<ref name=bbc /> Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in 1500, divided between dense coastal settlements, such as that at [[Marajoara culture|Marajó]], and inland dwellers.<ref name="park">{{cite book|author=Chris C. Park|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4WQf6RZAiKcC&pg=PA108|title=Tropical Rainforests|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=9780415062398|page=108}}</ref> By 1900 the population had fallen to 1 million, and by the early 1980s, it was less than 200,000.<ref name=park />

Researchers have found that the fertile ''[[terra preta]]'' (black earth) is distributed over large areas in the Amazon forest. It is now widely accepted that these soils are a product of indigenous [[soil management]]. The development of this soil enabled [[agriculture]] and [[silviculture]] to be conducted in the previously hostile environment. Large portions of the Amazon rainforest are therefore probably the result of centuries of human management, rather than naturally occurring as has previously been supposed.<ref>The influence of human alteration has been generally underestimated, reports Darna L. Dufour: "Much of what has been considered natural forest in Amazonia is probably the result of hundreds of years of human use and management." "Use of Tropical Rainforests by Native Amazonians", ''BioScience'' 40, no. 9 (October 1990):658. For an example of how such peoples integrated planting into their nomadic lifestyles, see Rival, Laura, 1993. "The Growth of Family Trees: Understanding Huaorani Perceptions of the Forest", ''Man'' 28(4):635–652.</ref> In the region of the [[Xinguanos]] tribe, remains of some of these large, mid-forest Amazon settlements were found in 2003 by Michael Heckenberger and colleagues of the [[University of Florida]]. Among those remains were evidence of constructed roads, bridges and large plazas.<ref>{{Citation
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===Andean civilizations===

====Chavín====
[[File:World in 500 BCE.png|thumb|220px|Overview map of the world in 500 BC, showing [[Chavín culture|Chavín]], [[Paracas culture|Paracas]], [[Chorrera culture|Chorrera]] and their neighbors]]
The [[Chavín culture|Chavín]], a South American preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called [[Chavín de Huantar]] in modern [[Peru]] at an elevation of 3,177 meters.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.cyark.org/chavn-de-huntar-info |title=Chavín de Huántar Information |access-date=2018-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111161231/http://archive.cyark.org/chavn-de-huntar-info |archive-date=2018-01-11 }}</ref> Chavín civilization spanned 900 to 200 BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Chavin_Civilization/|title=Chavin Civilization|website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref>

====Moche====
[[File:Ande centrali, costa del nord, moche, contenitore a forma di testa-ritratto, 200-850 dc ca. 02.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Moche portrait vessel]], c. 200—850 AD]]
The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] thrived on the north coast of Peru between the first and ninth century CE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Moche_Civilization/|title=Moche Civilization|website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref> The heritage of the Moche comes down to us through their elaborate burials, excavated by former UCLA professor [[Christopher B. Donnan]] in association with the [[National Geographic Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/Rich-Tombs-From-Moche-Culture-Uncovered-2160 |title=Rich Tombs from Moche Culture Uncovered on Peruvian Coast &#124; UCLA |access-date=2018-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115002416/http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/Rich-Tombs-From-Moche-Culture-Uncovered-2160 |archive-date=2018-01-15 }}</ref>

Skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people who traded with faraway peoples, like the [[Maya civilization|Maya]]. Knowledge about the Moche has been derived mostly from their ceramic pottery, which is carved with representations of their daily lives. They practiced human sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals, and their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Moche|title=Moche &#124; ancient South American culture|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AaddAAAAQBAJ&q=moche+fellatio&pg=RA1-SA2-PA56 |title = Sex, Death, and Sacrifice in Moche Religion and Visual Culture|isbn = 9780292783188|last1 = Bourget|first1 = Steve|date = 2010-06-28| publisher=University of Texas Press }}</ref>

====Inca====
Holding their capital at the great puma-shaped city of [[Cuzco]], the [[Inca civilization]] dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as ''Tawantin suyu'', or "the land of the four regions," in [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000-kilometre [[Inca road system|road system]]. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. [[Terrace farming]] was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and successful [[Trepanation in Mesoamerica|skull surgery]] in Inca civilization. The Inca had no written language, but used [[quipu]], a system of knotted strings, to record information.<ref>{{Cite encyclopaedia|entry-url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/quipu|entry=quipu: Incan counting tool|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2017-10-13|language=en}}</ref> Ongoing Kiphu research suggests that the Inca used a phonetic system as a form of writing in the kiphu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hyland |first=Sabine |title=Writing with Twisted Cords: The Inscriptive Capacity of Andean Khipus |journal=Current Anthropology |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/691682 |date=June 2017 |volume=58 |number=3 |pages=412–419 |doi=10.1086/691682 |issn=0011-3204|hdl=10023/12326 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

===Arawak and Carib civilizations===
The [[Arawaks|Arawak]] lived along the eastern coast of South America, from present-day [[Guyana]] to as far south as what is now Brazil. Explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] described them at first encounter as a peaceful people, having already dominated other local groups such as the [[Ciboney]]. The Arawak had, however, come under increasing military pressure from the [[Kalina people|Carib]], who are believed to have left the [[Orinoco]] river area to settle on islands and the coast of the Caribbean Sea. Over the century leading up to Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean archipelago in 1492, the Carib are believed to have displaced many of the Arawak who previously settled the island chains. The Carib also encroached on Arawak territory in what is modern Guyana.

The Carib were skilled boatbuilders and sailors who owed their dominance in the Caribbean basin to their military skills. The Carib war rituals included [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]]; they had a practice of taking home the limbs of victims as trophies.

It is not known how many [[Indigenous peoples in Venezuela|indigenous peoples]] lived in Venezuela and Colombia before the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish Conquest]]; it may have been approximately one million,<ref name=Wunder/> including groups such as the [[Auaké people|Auaké]], [[Caquetio]], [[Mariche]], and [[Timoto-cuicas]].<ref>This is disputed by modern Caribs.</ref> The number of people fell dramatically after the Conquest, mainly due to high mortality rates in epidemics of infectious Eurasian diseases introduced by the explorers, who carried them as an endemic disease.<ref name=Wunder>Wunder, Sven (2003), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=n2nQ0A8BmCYC&pg=PA130 Oil Wealth and the Fate of the Forest: A Comparative Study of Eight Tropical Countries]'', [[Routledge]]. p. 130, {{ISBN|0-203-98667-9}}.</ref> There were two main north–south axes of pre-Columbian population; producing [[maize]] in the west and [[manioc]] in the east.<ref name=Wunder/> Large parts of the [[llanos]] plains were cultivated through a combination of [[slash and burn]] and permanent settled agriculture.<ref name=Wunder/>