Editing History of Romania (section)

== Dacia ==
{{Main|Celts in Transylvania|Dacians|Dacia|Domitian's Dacian War|Trajan's Dacian Wars|Getae}}{{Overly detailed|section|date=January 2023}}[[File:Sarmizegetusa Regia - Sanctuarul mare circular. (Zona sacra).jpg|thumb|The [[sanctuaries]] of the ancient [[Dacia]]n Kingdom capital, [[Sarmizegetusa Regia]]]]

The [[Dacians]], who are widely accepted to be the same people as the [[Getae]], were a branch of [[Thracians]] who inhabited [[Dacia]], which corresponds with modern Romania, [[Moldova]], northern Bulgaria, south-western Ukraine, Hungary east of the [[Danube]] river and West Banat in [[Serbia]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Google Translate| isbn=978-963-386-004-5 |url=https://translate.google.com/translate?depth=1&hl=nl&prev=search&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=en&sp=nmt4&u=https://books.openedition.org/ceup/935|via=translate.google.com|access-date=2020-05-25 | last1=Boia | first1=Lucian | date=January 2001 | publisher=Central European University Press }}</ref>

The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of present-day Romania comes from [[Herodotus]] in Book IV of his ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'', written in {{circa}} 440&nbsp;BC; He writes that the tribal union/confederation of the [[Getae]] were defeated by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] Emperor [[Darius the Great]] during his campaign against the [[Scythians]].<ref>{{Citation|last =Herodotus|author-link =Herodotus|title =The Ancient History of Herodotus |type =Google Books|pages =213–217|publisher = Derby & Jackson|orig-year =440&nbsp;BCE, translated 1859|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=sfHsgNIZum0C&q=herodotus+dacians+darius&pg=PA215|access-date=2008-01-10|others = William Beloe (translator)|year =1859}}</ref> One of the most important artifacts from around this period was the [[Helmet of Coțofenești]], which was [[2025 Drents Museum heist|stolen in 2025]].

{{Blockquote|The Dacians are the most law-abiding and the bravest of the Thracians. They believe they are immortal, forever living in the following sense: they think they do not die and that the one who dies joins [[Zalmoxis]], a divine being.|Herodotus}}

[[Strabo]]'s account of the lands inhabited by the [[Getae]]: {{blockquote|As for the southern part of Germany beyond the [[Albis]], the portion which is just contiguous to that river is occupied by the [[Suevi]]; then immediately adjoining this is the land of the [[Getae]], which, though narrow at first, stretching as it does along the [[Danube|Ister]] on its southern side and on the opposite side along the mountain-side of the [[Hercynian Forest]] (for the land of the [[Getae]] also embraces a part of the mountains), afterwards broadens out towards the north as far as the [[Tyragetae|Tyregetae]]; but I cannot tell the precise boundaries.<ref name="strabo">{{cite web | title=Strabo, Geography, Book 7, chapter 3 | website=Perseus Digital Library | url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198:book=7:chapter=3 | access-date=2025-04-11}}</ref> }}
[[File:Dacian_Tribal_Lands.png|thumb|right|alt=Geto-Dacians Tribes|The comprehensive map detailing the approximate lands inhabited by the Getae according to Strabo's accounts]]

The Dacians spoke a dialect of the Thracian language but were influenced culturally by the neighboring Scythians in the east and by the Celtic invaders of [[Transylvania]] in the 4th century.

Due to the fluctuating nature of the Dacian states, especially before the time of Burebista and before the 1st century AD, the Dacians would often be split into different kingdoms. Known rulers of the Dacians include [[Charnabon]] in the 5th century BC, [[Cothelas]] in the 4th century BC,<ref>Atlas of Classical History by R. Talbert, 1989, page 63, "Getae under Cothelas"</ref> Rex Histrianorum mentioned in 339 BC, Dual in the 3rd century BC, [[Moskon]] in the 3rd century BC,<ref>https://revistapontica.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/pontica-3-pag-125-129.pdf Radu Ocheșeanu: Monedele basileului Moskon aflate în colecțiile Muzeului de Arheologie Constanța</ref> [[Dromichaetes]] in the 3rd century BC,<ref>Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, Index Dromichaetes King of the Getians</ref> [[Zalmodegicus]] around 200 BC,<ref>McGing B.C.: ''The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus''</ref><ref>Kurt W. Treptow and Ioan Bolovan in “A history of Romania – East European Monographs”, 1996, {{ISBN|9780880333450}}, page 17 "..Two inscriptions discovered at Histria indicate that Geto-Dacian rulers (Zalmodegikos and later Rhemaxos) continued to exercise control over that city-state around 200 BC ...."</ref> [[Rhemaxos]] also around 200 BC,<ref>The Hellenistic Age from the Battle of Ipsos to the Death of Kleopatra VII by Stanley M. Burstein, 1985, Index Rhemaxos Getic or Scythian ruler</ref><ref>Kurt W. Treptow and Ioan Bolovan in “A history of Romania – East European Monographs”, 1996, {{ISBN|9780880333450}}, page 17 "Two inscriptions discovered at Histria indicate that Geto-Dacian rulers (Zalmodegikos and later Rhemaxos) continued to exercise control over that city-state around 200 BC ...."</ref> [[Rubobostes]] before 168 BC,<ref>Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, Index Rubobostes Dacian King</ref> [[Zoltes]] after 168 BC,<ref name="Gagarin2010">{{cite book|editor-last=Gagarin|editor-first=Michael|last=Theodossiev|first=Nikola|chapter=Thrace|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNV6-HsUppsC&pg=RA6-PA55|access-date=22 December 2013|volume=1|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517072-6|page=55}}</ref> [[Oroles]] in the 2nd century BC,<ref>Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 53, "Dacian King Oroles"</ref> [[Dicomes]] in the 1st century BC,<ref>Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 47, "Dicomes of the Getians"</ref> [[Rholes]] in the 1st century BC,<ref>The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus by Cassius Dio, Ian Scott-Kilvert, and John Carter, 1987, page 85: "... Then he completed their destruction with the help of Roles, the king of a tribe of the Getae. When Roles visited Octavian, he was treated as a friend ..."</ref> [[Dapyx]] in the 1st century BC,<ref>Cassius Dio. Roman History, Book LI. "While he was thus engaged, Roles, who had become embroiled with Dapyx, himself also king of a tribe of the Getae, sent for him. Crassus went to his aid, and by hurling the horse of his opponents back upon their infantry he so thoroughly terrified the latter also that what followed was no longer a battle but a great slaughter of fleeing men of both arms. Next he cut off Dapyx, who had taken refuge in a fort, and besieged him. In the course of the siege someone hailed him from the walls in Greek, obtained a conference with him, and arranged to betray the place. The barbarians, thus captured, turned upon one another, and Dapyx was killed along with many others. His brother, however, Crassus took alive, and not only did him no harm but actually released him."</ref> [[Zyraxes]] in the 1st century BC,<ref>Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 146, "Zyraxes who ruled in Dobruja"</ref> [[Burebista]] between 82 and 44 BC,<ref>Studies in Ancient Greek and Roman Society by Robin Osborne, 2004, page 128: "... of its citizens, named Akornion, went on an embassy to Burebista, the first and greatest of the kings in Thrace..."</ref> [[Deceneus]] between 44 BC and around 27 BC,<ref>Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, Index (Decaeneus/Dekaineus/Dicineus) Dacian High priest"</ref> Thiamarkos between 1st century BC and 1st century AD,{{sfn| Berciu|1981|p=139-140}} [[Cotiso]] between c. 40 BC and c.9 BC,<ref>Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 48, "The Dacian king Cotiso"</ref> [[Comosicus]] between 9 BC and 30 AD,<ref name="Dacia 2007, page 72">Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 72, "At least two of his successors Comosicus and Scorillo/Corilus/Scoriscus became high priests and eventually Dacian kings"</ref> [[Scorilo]] between c. 30 AD and 70 AD<ref name="Dacia 2007, page 72" /> [[Coson]] in the 1st century AD,<ref name="Dacia 2007, page 47">Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization by Ioana A Oltean, 2007, page 47, "Kings Coson (who minted his own coins) and Duras"</ref> [[Duras (Dacian king)|Duras]] between c. 69 AD to 87 AD,<ref name="Dacia 2007, page 47" /> and [[Decebalus]] between 87 AD to 106 AD.<ref>''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' [http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#t-inx]. Retrieved 2007-11-08. "In the year 88, the Romans resumed the offensive. The Roman troops were now led by the general Tettius Iulianus. The battle took place again at Tapae but this time the Romans defeated the Dacians. For fear of falling into a trap, Iulianus abandoned his plans of conquering Sarmizegetuza and, at the same time, Decebalus asked for peace. At first, Domitian refused this request, but after he was defeated in a war in Pannonia against the Marcomanni (a Germanic tribe), the emperor was obliged to accept the peace."</ref> Dacia became a province of the [[Roman Empire]] in 106 AD, conquered by Emperor [[Trajan]]. However the Free Dacians outside of the Roman Empire remain independent under [[Pieporus]], king of Dacian [[Costoboci]] in the 2nd century AD,<ref>Wilhelm Tomachek in “Les restes de la langue dace” published in “Le Muséon By Société des lettres et des sciences, Louvain, Belgium, page 407 "Pieporus, prince des daces Costoboces..."</ref><ref>Gudmund Schütte in Ptolemy's maps of northern Europe, H. Hagerup, 1917 page 82 "historical king Pieporus. The same author Schütte in “Our forefathers” published by University Press, 1929 page 74 "The North Dacian tribes of the Koistobokoi and Karpoi unlike the rest of Dacia escaped the Roman conquest of AD 105..."</ref> and possibly Tarbus in the 2nd century AD.<ref>Wilhelm Tomachek (1883): “Les restes de la langue dace” published in “Le Muséon By Société des lettres et des sciences, Louvain, Belgium, page 409</ref><ref>[[Roger Batty|Batty, Roger]] (2007): ''Rome and the Nomads: the Pontic-Danubian realm in antiquity'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-814936-0}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-814936-1}}, page 366</ref>

The Dacia of King [[Burebista]] (82–44 BC) stretched from the [[Black Sea]] to the source of the river Tisa and from the [[Balkan Mountains]] to [[Bohemia]].<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite encyclopedia|title=History of Romania – Antiquity – The Dacians |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |date=27 May 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/508461/Romania/214504/History#ref=ref476941}}</ref> During that period, the Geto-Dacians conquered a wider territory and Dacia extended from the Middle Danube to the Black Sea littoral (between Apollonia and Olbia) and from present-day Slovakia's mountains to the Balkan mountains.{{sfn|Murray|2001|p=1120}} In 53 BC, [[Julius Caesar]] stated that the lands of the Dacians started on the eastern edge of the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest).{{sfn|Mountain|1998|p=59}}

Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa river prior to the rise of the Celtic [[Boii]] and again after the latter were defeated by the Dacians under the king Burebista.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=215}} It seems likely that the Dacian state arose as a tribal confederacy, which was united only by charismatic leadership.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=215}} Before 168 BC,<ref>Barry Cunliffe (1987)142</ref> under the rule of king [[Rubobostes]] in present-day [[Transylvania]], the Dacians' power in the [[Carpathian basin]] increased after they defeated the [[Celts]], who held power in the region since the Celtic invasion of Transylvania in the 4th century BC.
[[File:Dacian_Empire_Under_Burebista.png|thumb|right|alt=Geto-Dacia under Burebista|The legend map of Dacia at its zenith]]

A kingdom of Dacia also existed as early as the first half of the 2nd century BC under King [[Oroles]]. Conflicts with the [[Bastarnae]] and the Romans (112–109 BC, 74 BC), against whom they had assisted the [[Scordisci]] and [[Dardani]], greatly weakened the resources of the Dacians. The [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] historian [[Trogus Pompeius]] wrote about king Oroles punishing his soldiers into sleeping at their wives' feet and doing the household chores, because of their initial failure in defeating the invaders. Subsequently, the now "highly motivated" Dacian army defeated the [[Bastarnae]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans32.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030902205715/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans32.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=September 2, 2003|title=Justin: Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 32|website=forumromanum.org}}</ref>

[[File:Daciamaps.png|left|thumb|Top: territories controlled by the [[List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia|Dacian king]], c. [[50 BC]]; bottom: territories controlled by the [[List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia|Dacian king]], circa [[year zero]]]]
[[Burebista]] (Boerebista), a contemporary of [[Julius Caesar]], ruled Geto-Dacian tribes between 82 BC and 44 BC. He reorganized the army and attempted to raise the moral standard and obedience of the people by persuading them to give up wine.<ref name="StraboVII.3.11">Strabo, ''Geography'', VII:3.11</ref> During his reign, the limits of the Dacian Kingdom were extended to their maximum. The [[Bastarnae]] and [[Boii]] were conquered, and even the Greek towns of [[Olbia]] and [[Apollonia, Thrace|Apollonia]] on the [[Black Sea]] (''Pontus Euxinus'') recognized [[Burebista]]'s authority. In 53 BC, Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was on the eastern border of the [[Hercynian Forest]].{{sfn|Mountain|1998|p=59}}
[[File:Burebista's_campaigns_remake.png|thumb|alt=Dacia under Burebista|Map showing Burebista campaigns and territorial occupation]]

Burebista suppressed the indigenous minting of coinages by four major tribal groups, adopting imported or copied Roman denarii as a monetary standard.{{sfn|Taylor|2001|p=215}} During his reign, Burebista transferred the Geto-Dacian capital from [[Argedava]] to [[Sarmizegetusa Regia]].{{sfn|MacKendrick|2000|p=48}}{{sfn|Goodman|Sherwood|2002|p=227}} For at least one and a half centuries, Sarmizegetusa was the Dacians' capital and reached its peak under King [[Decebalus]]. The Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which his death in 44 BC prevented. In the same year, Burebista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (later five) parts under separate rulers.
[[File:Burebista_campaign_against_Boii_and_Taurisci_remake.png|thumb|alt=Burebista conquest of Boii and Taurisci|The map that shows the Dacian invasion of Boii and Taurisci]]

The Dacians are often mentioned during the reign of Augustus, who claimed they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However, they were by no means subdued, and in later times, to maintain their independence, they seized every opportunity to cross the frozen Danube during the winter, ravaging Roman cities in the province of [[Moesia]].

{{Blockquote|Although the Getae and Daci once attained to very great power, so that they actually could send forth an expedition of two hundred thousand men, they now find themselves reduced to as few as forty thousand, and they have come close to the point of yielding obedience to the Romans, though as yet they are not absolutely submissive, because of the hopes which they base on the Germans, who are enemies to the Romans.|Strabo}}

[[File:Dacian_empire.png|thumb|right|alt=Dacia in 55 BC|One of the greatest existence of Dacia]]

During the [[War of Actium]], King [[Cotiso]] found himself courted by the two Roman antagonists, Octavian and Mark Antony. Cotiso was in a strong position to dictate terms of any alliance. Octavian/[[Augustus]] worried about the frontier and possible alliance between [[Mark Antony]] and the Dacians, and plotted an expedition against Dacia around 35 BC. Despite several small conflicts, no serious campaigns were mounted. King Cotiso chose to ally himself with Mark Antony. According to Alban Dewes Winspear and Lenore Kramp Geweke he "proposed that the war should be fought in Macedonia rather than Epirus. Had his proposal been accepted, the subjection of Antonius might have been less easily accomplished."<ref>Alban Dewes Winspear, Lenore Kramp Geweke, ''Augustus and the Reconstruction of Roman Government and Society'', University of Wisconsin Press, 1935 p.252.</ref>

[[File:Dacian women.JPG|thumb|right|A 19th century depiction of Dacian women]]
[[File:Koson 79000126.jpg|thumb|right|Geto-Dacian [[Coson|Koson]], mid 1st century BC]]

According to [[Appian]], Mark Antony is responsible for the statement that Augustus sought to secure the goodwill of Cotiso by giving him his daughter, and he himself marrying a daughter of Cotiso.<ref>Translations and reprints from the original sources of history, Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1898, University of Pennsylvania. Dept. of History</ref> According to [[Suetonius]], Cotiso refused the alliance and joined the party of Mark Antony.<ref name="Monumentum ancyranum">Monumentum ancyranum: the deeds of Augustus, Volume 5, Issue 2, Augustus (Emperor of Rome) The Department of History of the University of Pennsylvania, 1898, page 73</ref> [[Suetonius]] (LXIII, ''Life of Augustus'') says Mark Antony wrote that Augustus [[betrothed]] his daughter [[Julia the Elder|Julia]] to marry Cotiso to create an alliance between the two men. This failed when Cotiso betrayed Augustus. According to [[Cassius Dio]], the story about the proposed marriages is hardly credible and may have been invented by Mark Antony as propaganda to offset his own alliance with Cleopatra.<ref name="Monumentum ancyranum" />

After Augustus's victory in the civil wars, the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] punished the Dacian ruler, who was apparently defeated in battle around 25 BC.<ref>William Miller, ''The Balkans: Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro'', Putnam, 1972, p.5</ref> In his account of his achievements as emperor, the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'', Augustus claimed that the Dacians had been subdued. This was not entirely true, because Dacian troops frequently crossed the Danube to ravage parts of Pannonia and Moesia.<ref>Matthew Bunson (1995): ''A dictionary of the Roman Empire'', page 124, Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-510233-9}} {{ISBN|978-0195102338}}</ref> He may have survived until the campaign of [[Marcus Vinicius (consul 19 BC)|Marcus Vinicius]] in the Dacian area c.9 BC. Vinicius was the first Roman commander to cross the Danube and invade Dacia itself. Ioana A. Oltean argues that Cotiso probably died at some point during this campaign.<ref name="io">Ioana A. Oltean, ''Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization'', Routledge, 7 Aug 2007, p49.</ref> According to [[Jordanes]] Cotiso was succeeded by [[Comosicus]], about whom nothing is known beyond the name.<ref name="io" />
King [[Scorilo]] was [[Comosicus]]' successor and may have been the father of Decebalus. The Roman historian [[Jordanes]] lists a series of Dacian kings before Decebalus, placing a ruler called "Coryllus" between [[Comosicus]] and the independently attested [[Duras (Dacian king)|Duras]], who preceded Decebalus as king. Coryllus is supposed to have presided over a long peaceful 40-year rule, however, the name Coryllus is not mentioned by any other historian, and it has been argued that it "is a misspelling of Scorilo, a relatively common Dacian name".<ref>Köpeczi, Béla, ''History of Transylvania: From the beginnings to 1606'', Social Science Monographs, 2001, p.52.</ref> On this basis, Coryllus has been equated with the Scorilo named on an ancient Dacian pot bearing the words “Decebalus per Scorilo”. Though far from certain, this has also been translated as "Decebalus son of Scorilo". If so, this might mean that Decebalus was the son of Scorilo, with Duras possibly being either an older son or a brother of Scorilo.<ref>Ion Grumeza, ''Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe'', University Press of America, 2009, p.72.</ref> A Dacian king (''dux Dacorum'') called Scorilo is also mentioned by [[Frontinus]], who says he was in power during a period of turmoil in Rome.<ref name="bbb">Bărbulescu, Mihai, et al, ''The History of Transylvania: (Until 1541)'', Romanian Cultural Institute, 2005, pp.87–9.</ref> From this evidence and references to Dacian kings elsewhere, it is suggested that Scorilo probably ruled from the 30s or 40s AD through to 69–70.<ref name="bbb" />

The Dacians regularly raided into Roman territory in [[Moesia]]. The emperors [[Tiberius]] and [[Caligula]] solved this problem by paying protection money to the Dacians in the form of annual subsidies. This policy appears to have coincided with the reign of King Scorilo. Scorilo's brother was apparently held captive for a period in Rome, but was released in exchange for a promise that the Dacians would not intervene in Rome's volatile power-politics.<ref name="io2">Ion Grumeza, ''Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe'', University Press of America, 2009, p.154-5.</ref> During the reign of Emperor [[Nero]], troops were withdrawn from the Dacian border. When Nero was overthrown in 69, the empire was plunged into turmoil in the [[Year of Four Emperors]]. The Dacians appear to have tried to take advantage of the situation to launch an invasion of Moesia in alliance with the Sarmatian [[Roxolani]]. The invasion was ill-timed. [[Licinius Mucianus]], a supporter of [[Vespasian]], was advancing with an army through Moesia towards Rome to overthrow [[Vitellius]]. The Dacians unexpectedly encountered his forces and suffered a major defeat. Scorilo appears to have died around this time.<ref>Ioana A. Oltean, Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization, Routledge, 7 Aug 2007, p49.</ref>

[[File:Sarmisegetusa Regia - ansamblu 1.jpg|thumb|The [[sanctuaries]] in the ruined Sarmizegetusa Regia, the capital of ancient Dacia]]
King [[Duras (Dacian king)|Duras]] ruled between the years AD 69 and 87, during the time that [[Domitian]] ruled the [[Roman Empire]]. He was one of a series of rulers following the Great King [[Burebista]]. Duras' immediate successor was [[Decebalus]]. Duras may be identical to the "Diurpaneus" (or "Dorpaneus") identified in Roman sources as the Dacian leader who, in the winter of 85, ravaged the southern banks of the [[Danube]], which the Romans defended for many years. Many authors refer to him as "Duras-Diurpaneus".<ref>Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haas, ''Politische Geschichte: (Provinzen und Randvölker: Griechischer Balkanraum; Kleinasien)'', [[Walter de Gruyter]], 1979, p.167.</ref><ref>Constantin Olteanu, ''The Romanian armed power concept: a historical approach'', Military Publishing House, 1982, p.39.</ref><ref>''Romania: Pages of History'', Volume 4, [[Agerpres]] Publishing House, 1979, p.75.</ref> Other scholars argue that Duras and Diurpaneus are different individuals, or that Diurpaneus is identical to Decebalus.<ref>Ioana A. Oltean, ''Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization'', Routledge, 2007, p.49-50.</ref>

The Roman governor of Moesia, [[Gaius Oppius Sabinus|Oppius Sabinus]], raised an army and went to war with the Dacians following the Dacian (Getae) raids into Roman territory.<ref name="bri">Brian W. Jones, ''The Emperor Domitian'', Routledge, London, 1992, p.138</ref> Diurpaneus and his people defeated and decapitated Oppius Sabinus. When news of the defeat reached Rome, the citizens became fearful that the conquering enemy would invade and spread destruction further into the Empire. Because of this fear, Domitian was obliged to move with his entire army into [[Illyria]] and [[Moesia]], the latter of which was now split into Upper and Lower regions. He ordered his commander [[Cornelius Fuscus]] to cross the Danube.<ref name="bri" /> The Dacians were pushed back across the Danube, but Fuscus suffered a crushing defeat when ambushed by "Diurpaneus". At this point, the probably elderly Duras seems to have peacefully ceded power to Decebalus.

King [[Decebalus]] ruled the Dacians between AD 87 and 106. The frontiers of Decebal's Dacia were marked by the Tisa River to the west, by the trans-Carpathians to the north and by the Dniester River to the east.{{sfn|Vico|Pinton|2001|p=325}}

[[File:Konstantinbågen detalj 04.jpg|thumb|Two of the eight marble statues of Dacian warriors surmounting the [[Arch of Constantine]] in [[Rome]]{{sfn|Westropp|2003|p=104}}]]
From AD 85 to 89, the Dacians under [[Decebalus]] were engaged in two wars with the Romans. In AD 85, the Dacians had swarmed over the Danube and pillaged Moesia.{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=216}}{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=53}} In AD 87, the Roman troops sent by the Emperor Domitian against them under [[Cornelius Fuscus]], were defeated and Cornelius Fuscus was killed by the Dacians by authority of their ruler, Diurpaneus.{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=217}} After this victory, Diurpaneus took the name of ''Decebalus'', but the Romans were victorious in the [[Battle of Tapae (88)|Battle of Tapae]] in AD 88 and a truce was drawn up .<ref name="Romanis REquote01">{{cite encyclopedia
|access-date=2007-11-08
|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#t-inx
|title=De Imperatoribus Romanis
|encyclopedia=An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
|format=Assorted Imperial Battle Descriptions
|quote= Battle of Sarmizegetusa (Sarmizegetuza), AD 105. During Trajan's reign Rome achieved victory over the Dacians. The first important confrontation between the Romans and the Dacians took place in the year AD 87 and was initiated by Domitian. The [[praetorian prefect]] [[Cornelius Fuscus|Cornelius]] led five or six legions across the Danube on a bridge of ships and advanced towards [[Banat]] (in Romania). The Romans were surprised by a Dacian attack at Tapae (near the village of [[Băuțar|Bucova]], in Romania). Legion V Alaude was crushed and Cornelius Fuscus was killed. The victorious general was originally known as [[Diurpaneus]] (see Manea, p.109), but after this victory he was called Decebalus (the brave one).}}</ref> The next year, AD 88, new Roman troops under [[Tettius Julianus]], gained a significant advantage, but were obligated to make a humiliating peace following the defeat of [[Domitian]] by the [[Marcomanni]], leaving the Dacians effectively independent. Decebalus was given the status of "king client to Rome", receiving military instructors, craftsmen and money from Rome.

[[File:Dacia_under_Decebalus_Remastered.png|thumb|right|alt=Decebalus Dacia|The Dacian kingdom under Decebalus]]

To increase the glory of his reign, restore the finances of Rome, and end a treaty perceived as humiliating, Trajan resolved on the conquest of Dacia, the capture of the famous Treasure of Decebalus, and control over the Dacian gold mines of [[Transylvania]]. The result of his first campaign (101–102) was the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa and the occupation of part of the country. Emperor Trajan recommenced hostilities against Dacia and, following an uncertain number of battles,{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=219}} and with Trajan's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital [[Sarmizegethusa]], Decebalus once more sought terms.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2004|p=329}}

Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in AD 105. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia,{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=222}} attacking the Dacian capital in the [[siege of Sarmizegethusa]], and razing it to the ground,{{sfn|Matyszak|2004|p=223}} the defeated Dacian king [[Decebalus]] committed suicide.{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=54}} In the following years, a new city was built on the ruins of the Dacian capital named [[Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa]]. With part of Dacia quelled as the [[Roman province]] [[Roman Dacia|Dacia Traiana]].{{sfn|Stoica|1919|p=52}} Trajan subsequently [[Trajan's Parthian War|invaded the Parthian empire]] to the east. Rome's borders in the east were governed indirectly in this period, through a system of [[client states]], which led to less direct campaigning than in the west.{{sfn|Luttwak|1976|p=39}}

The weapon most associated with the Dacian forces that fought against Trajan's army during his invasions of Dacia was the [[falx]], a single-edged scythe-like weapon. The falx was able to inflict horrible wounds on opponents, easily disabling or killing the heavily armored Roman legionaries.{{sfn|Schmitz| 2005|p= 30}} Trajan erected the [[Trajan's Column|Column of Trajan]] in [[Rome]] to commemorate his victory.<ref>Sinnegen & Boak. ''A History of Rome to A.D. 565'', Sixth Ed. MacMillan Publishing Co., New York. ç1977 p.312</ref>

=== Roman Dacia (106–275 AD) ===
{{Main|Roman Dacia}}
[[File:Roman province of Dacia (106 - 271 AD).svg|right|thumb|[[Roman Dacia]], between 106 and 271&nbsp;AD]]

Roman Dacia, also known as Dacia Felix, was organized as an [[imperial province]]. It is estimated that the population of Roman Dacia ranging from 650,000 to 1,200,000. The area was the focus of a massive Roman colonization. New mines were opened and ore extraction intensified, while agriculture, stock breeding, and commerce flourished. Roman Dacia was of great importance to the military stationed throughout the [[Balkans]] and became an urban province, with about ten cities known and all of them originating from old [[Castra|military camps]]. Eight of these held the highest rank of ''[[Colonia (Roman)|colonia]]''. [[Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa]] was the financial, religious, and legislative center and where the [[Procurator (Roman fiscal)|imperial ''procurator'']] (finance officer) had his seat, while [[Alba Iulia|Apulum]] was Roman Dacia's military center. The region was soon settled by the retired veterans who had served in the Dacian Wars, principally the [[Legio V Macedonica|Fifth (''Macedonia'')]], [[Legio XI Claudia|Ninth (''Claudia'')]], and [[Legio XIV Gemina|Fourteenth (''Gemina'')]] legions.{{sfn|Köpeczi|1994|p=92}}

While it is certain that colonists in large numbers were imported from all over the empire to settle in Roman Dacia,{{sfn|Ellis|1998|pp=220–237}} this appears to be true for the newly created Roman towns only. The lack of epigraphic evidence for native Dacian names in the towns suggests an urban–rural split between Roman multi-ethnic urban centers and the native Dacian rural population.{{sfn|Ellis|1998|pp=220–237}} On at least two occasions the Dacians rebelled against Roman authority: first in 117 AD, which caused the return of Trajan from the east,{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=22}} and in 158 AD when they were put down by [[Marcus Statius Priscus]].{{sfn|Parker|1958|pp=12–19}}

Some scholars have used the lack of ''[[Peregrinus (Roman)#Local authorities|civitates peregrinae]]'' in Roman Dacia, where indigenous peoples were organized into native townships, as evidence for the Roman depopulation of Dacia.{{sfn|Vékony|2000|p=110}} Prior to its incorporation into the empire, Dacia was a kingdom ruled by one king, and did not possess a regional tribal structure that could easily be turned into the Roman ''civitas'' system as used successfully in other provinces of the empire.{{sfn|Oltean|2007|p=227}}

[[File:Roman Gothic Walls Romania Plain.svg|right|thumb|[[Roman walls]] in Dacia]]
As per usual Roman practice, Dacian males were recruited into auxiliary units{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2003|p=76}} and dispatched across the empire.{{sfn|Köpeczi|1994|p=102}} The ''Vexillation Dacorum Parthica'' accompanied the emperor Septimius Severus during his [[Parthia]]n expedition,{{sfn|Vékony|2000|p=109}} while the ''cohort I Ulpia Dacorum'' was posted to [[Cappadocia (Roman province)|Cappadocia]].{{sfn|Găzdac|2010|p=59}} Others included the ''II Aurelia Dacorum'' in [[Pannonia Superior]], the ''cohort I Aelia Dacorum'' in Roman Britain, and the ''II Augusta Dacorum milliaria'' in Moesia Inferior.{{sfn|Găzdac|2010|p=59}} There are a number of preserved relics originating from ''cohort I Aelia Dacorum'', with one inscription describing the ''[[sica]]'', a distinctive Dacian weapon.{{sfn|Vékony|2000|p=108}} Numerous [[Roman military diploma]]s issued for Dacian soldiers discovered after 1990 indicate that veterans preferred to return to their place of origin;{{sfn|Dana|Matei-Popescu|2009|pp=234–235}} per usual Roman practice, these veterans were given Roman citizenship upon their discharge.{{sfn|Erdkamp|2010|p=442}}

In an attempt to fill the cities, cultivate the fields, and mine the ore, a large-scale attempt at colonization took place with colonists coming in "from all over the Roman world".{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=23}} The colonists were a heterogeneous mix:{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=6}} of the some 3,000 names preserved in inscriptions found by the 1990s, 74% (c. 2,200) were Latin, 14% (c. 420) were Greek, 4% (c. 120) were [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]], 2.3% (c. 70) were [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], 2% (c. 60) were [[Thracian language|Thraco-Dacian]], and another 2% (c. 60) were [[Semitic languages|Semites]] from Syria.{{sfn|Köpeczi|1994|p=106}} Regardless of their place of origin, the settlers and colonists were a physical manifestation of Roman civilization and imperial culture, bringing with them the most effective Romanizing mechanism: the use of [[Latin]] as the new ''[[lingua franca]]''.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=6}}

The first settlement at Sarmizegetusa was made up of Roman citizens who had retired from their legions.{{sfn|Köpeczi|1994|p=103}} Based upon the location of names scattered throughout the province, it has been argued that a large percentage of colonists originated from Noricum and western Pannonia.{{sfn|Köpeczi|1994|p=104}} Specialist miners (the [[List of ancient tribes in Illyria#Pirustae|Pirusti tribesmen]]){{sfn|Köpeczi|1994|p=79}} were brought in from Dalmatia.{{sfn|MacKendrick|2000|p=206}}

[[File:Rome-JA1.jpg|thumb|Tarabostes on the [[Arch of Constantine]]]]
Although the Romans conquered and destroyed the ancient Kingdom of Dacia, much of the land remained outside of Roman Imperial authority. The conquest changed the balance of power in the region and was the catalyst for a renewed alliance of Germanic and Celtic tribes and kingdoms against the Roman Empire. However, the material advantages of the Roman Imperial system was attractive to the surviving aristocracy. Afterwards, many of the Dacians became Romanized (see also [[Origin of Romanians]]). In AD 183, war broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne of emperor [[Commodus]], [[Clodius Albinus]] and [[Pescennius Niger]], both distinguished themselves in the campaign.

According to [[Lactantius]],<ref>"Of the Manner in which the persecutors died" by [[Lactantius]] (early Christian author AD 240–320)</ref> the Roman emperor [[Decius]] (AD 249–251) had to restore Roman Dacia from the [[Carpo-Dacians]] of [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] "having undertaken an expedition against the Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of Dacia and Moesia".

Even so, the Germanic and Celtic kingdoms, particularly the [[Gothic tribes]], slowly moved toward the Dacian borders, and within a generation were making assaults on the province. Ultimately, the [[Goths]] succeeded in dislodging the Romans and restoring the "independence" of Dacia following Emperor [[Aurelian]]'s withdrawal, in 275. At the boundaries of [[Roman Dacia]], [[Carpi (people)|Carpi]] ([[Free Dacians]]) were still strong enough to sustain five battles in eight years against the Romans from AD 301–308. Roman Dacia was left in AD 275 by the Romans, to the Carpi again, and not to the Goths. There were still Dacians in AD 336, against whom [[Constantine the Great]] fought.

The province was abandoned by Roman troops, and, according to the ''Breviarium historiae Romanae'' by [[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius]], Roman citizens "from the towns and lands of Dacia" were resettled to the interior of Moesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm|title=Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History (Historiae Romanae Breviarium)|last=EUTROPIUS|website=www.ccel.org|access-date=2008-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220200338/http://www.ccel.org/p/pearse/morefathers/eutropius_breviarium_2_text.htm|archive-date=2009-02-20|url-status=dead}}</ref> Under [[Diocletian]], c. AD 296, in order to defend the Roman border, fortifications were erected by the Romans on both banks of the [[Danube]].{{sfn|Odahl|2003}}

=== Constantinian reconquest of Dacia ===
[[File:Limes Orientalis 337 AD png.PNG|thumb|Dacia during Constantine the Great]]
In 328 the emperor [[Constantine the Great]] inaugurated the [[Constantine's Bridge (Danube)]] at Sucidava, (today Corabia in Romania)<ref>Madgearu, Alexandru (2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. {{ISBN|978-973-8966-70-3}}, p.64 -126</ref> in hopes of reconquering [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]], a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with the [[Sarmatian]]s against the [[Goths]]. The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted. In celebration of this victory Constantine took the title ''Gothicus Maximus'' and claimed the subjugated territory as the new province of Gothia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |title=The Goths |date=1996 |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |pages=62, 63 }}</ref> In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders, Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate.<ref>Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-16531-1}}. p 250.</ref> Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army. The new frontier in Dacia was along the [[Brazda lui Novac]] line supported by [[Castra of Hinova]], [[Rusidava]] and [[Castra of Pietroasele]].<ref>Madgearu, Alexandru(2008). Istoria Militară a Daciei Post Romane 275–376. Cetatea de Scaun. {{ISBN|978-973-8966-70-3}}, p.64-126</ref> The [[Limes (Roman Empire)|limes]] passed to the north of [[Castra of Tirighina-Bărboși]] and ended at [[Sasyk Lagoon]] near the [[Dniester]] River.<ref>Costin Croitoru, (Romanian) Sudul Moldovei în cadrul sistemului defensiv roman. Contribuții la cunoașterea valurilor de pământ. Acta terrae septencastrensis, Editura Economica, Sibiu 2002, ISSN 1583-1817, p.111.</ref> Constantine took the title ''Dacicus maximus'' in 336.<ref>Odahl, Charles Matson. Constantine and the Christian Empire. New York: [[Routledge]], 2004. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-17485-6}} Paperback {{ISBN|0-415-38655-1}}, p.261.</ref> Some Roman territories north of the Danube resisted until [[Justinian I|Justinian]].

[[Victohali]], [[Taifals]], and [[Tervingi|Thervingians]] are tribes mentioned inhabiting Dacia in 350, after the Romans left. Archeological evidence suggests that [[Gepids]] were disputing [[Transylvania]] with Taifals and Tervingians. Taifals, once independent from Gothia, became federati of the Romans, from whom they obtained the right to settle [[Oltenia]].

In 376 the region was conquered by [[Huns]], who kept it until the death of [[Attila]] in 453. The Gepid tribe, ruled by [[Ardaric]], used it as their base, until in 566 it was destroyed by [[Lombards]]. Lombards abandoned the country and the [[Avar Khaganate|Avars]] (second half of the 6th century) dominated the region for 230 years, until their kingdom was destroyed by [[Charlemagne]] in 791. At the same time, [[Slavs|Slavic people]] arrived.

The ''Hellenic chronicle'' could possibly qualify to the first testimony of Romanians in Pannonia and Eastern Europe during the time of Attila,<ref>Dvoichenko-Markov, Demetrius. "THE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE". Byzantion, vol. 49, 1979, pp. 175–187. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/44172681. Accessed 3 April 2020.</ref><ref>O. V. Tvorogov, Drevne-Russkie Chronography (Ancient Russian Chronographies), Leningrad, 1975, p.138.</ref><ref>P. P. Panaitescu, Introducere la Istoria Culturii Romànesti (Introduction to the History of Rumanian Culture), Bucharest, 1969, p. 130</ref> implying that the formation of Proto-Romanian (or Common Romanian) from Vulgar Latin started in the 5th century.{{sfn|Pană Dindelegan|2013|p=2}}{{sfn|Petrucci|1999|p=4}} The words ''"torna, torna fratre"''<ref>''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor'' (258.10–21.), p. 381.</ref> (return, return brother) recorded in connection with a Roman campaign across the Balkan Mountains by [[Theophylact Simocatta]] and [[Theophanes the Confessor]] evidence the development of a Romance language in the late 6th century.{{sfn|Opreanu|2005|p=129}} The words were shouted "in native parlance"<ref>''The History of Theophylact Simocatta'' (ii. 15.10.), p. 65.</ref> by a local soldier in 587 or 588.{{sfn|Opreanu|2005|p=129}}{{sfn|Vékony|2000|pp=206–207}} The 11th-century Persian writer, [[Gardizi]], wrote about a Christian people "from the Roman Empire" called ''N.n.d.r'', inhabiting the lands along the Danube.{{sfn|Armbruster|1972|p=11}} He describes them as "more numerous than the Hungarians, but weaker".{{sfn|Armbruster|1972|p=11}} Historian Adolf Armbruster identified this people as the Romanians.{{sfn|Armbruster|1972|p=11}} Hungarian historiography identifies this people as the [[Bulgarians]].{{sfn|Kristó|1996|p=63}}

=== Name ===
{{Main|Getae#Getae and Dacians}}
The Dacians were known as ''Geta'' (plural ''Getae'') in [[Ancient Greek]] writings, and as ''Dacus'' (plural ''Daci'') or ''Getae'' in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] documents,{{sfn|Appian|165 AD|loc=Praef. 4/14-15|ps=, quoted in {{sfnlink|Millar|2004|p=189}}: "the Getae over the Danube, whom they call Dacians"}} but also as ''Dagae'' and ''Gaete'' as depicted on the late Roman map ''[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]''. It was [[Herodotus]] who first used the [[ethnonym]] ''Getae'' in his ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]''.{{sfn|Herodotus|440 BC|loc=4.93–4.97}} In Greek and Latin, in the writings of [[Julius Caesar]], [[Strabo]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], the people became known as 'the Dacians'.{{sfn|Fol|1996|p=223}} Getae and Dacians were interchangeable terms, or used with some confusion by the Greeks.{{sfn|Nandris|1976|p=730|ps=: Strabo and [[Trogus Pompeius]] "Daci quoque suboles Getarum sunt"}}{{sfn|Crossland|Boardman|1982|p=837}} Latin poets often used the name ''Getae''.{{sfn|Roesler|1864|p=89}} Modern historians prefer to use the name ''Geto-Dacians''.{{sfn|Fol|1996|p=223}} [[Strabo]] describes the Getae and Dacians as distinct but cognate tribes. This distinction refers to the regions they occupied.{{sfn|Bunbury|1979|p=150}} Strabo and Pliny the Elder also state that Getae and Dacians spoke the same language.{{sfn|Bunbury|1979|p=150}}{{sfn|Oltean|2007|p=44}}

By contrast, the name of ''Dacians'', whatever the origin of the name, was used by the more western tribes who adjoined the [[Pannonians]] and therefore first became known to the Romans.{{sfn|Bunbury|1979|p=151}} According to Strabo's ''[[Geographica]]'', the original name of the Dacians was {{lang|grc|Δάοι}} "''Daoi''".{{sfn|Strabo|20 AD|loc=VII 3,12}} The name Daoi (one of the ancient Geto-Dacian tribes) was certainly adopted by foreign observers to designate all the inhabitants of the countries north of [[Danube]] that had not yet been conquered by [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] or Rome.{{sfn|Fol|1996|p=223}}

The ethnographic name ''Daci'' is found under various forms within ancient sources. Greeks used the forms {{lang|grc|Δάκοι}} "''Dakoi''" ([[Strabo]], [[Dio Cassius]], and [[Dioscorides]]) and {{lang|grc|Δάοι}} "Daoi" (singular Daos).<ref name="Garašanin, Benac 1973 243">Garašanin, Benac (1973) 243</ref>{{sfn|Strabo|20 AD|loc=VII 3,12}}{{sfn|Parvan|Vulpe|Vulpe|2002|p=158}}{{efn|1=Dioscorides's book (known in English by its Latin title ''De Materia Medica'' ("Regarding Medical Materials")) has all the Dacian names of the plants preceded by {{lang|grc|Δάκοι}} ''Dakoi'' i.e. {{lang|grc|Δάκοι}} ''Dakoi'' προποδιλα Latin Daci [[wikt:propodila|propodila]] "Dacians propodila"}}{{sfn|Tomaschek|1883|p=397}} The form {{lang|grc|Δάοι}} "Daoi" was frequently used according to [[Stephan of Byzantium]].{{sfn|Van Den Gheyn|1886|p=170}} Latins used the forms ''Davus'', ''Dacus'', and a derived form ''Dacisci'' (Vopiscus and inscriptions).{{sfn|Mulvin| 2002|p=59|ps=: "…A tombstone inscription from Aquincum reads M. Secundi Genalis domo Cl. Agrip /pina/ negotiat. Dacisco. This is of a second century date and suggests the presence of some Dacian traders in Pannonia…"}}{{sfn|Petolescu|2000|p=163|ps=: "…patri incom[pa-] rabili, decep [to] a Daciscis in bel- loproclio …"}}{{sfn|Dobiáš|1964|p=43| ps=: "...CIL V 3372 inscription at Verona Papirio Marcellino, decepto a Daciscis in bello proelio.."}}{{sfn|Gibbon| 2008|p= 313|ps=: "…Aurelian calls these soldiers Hiberi, Riparienses, Castriani, and Dacisci " conform to "Vopiscus in Historia Augusta XXVI 38"}}{{sfn|Van Den Gheyn|1886|p=170}}

There are similarities between the ethnonyms of the Dacians and those of [[Dahae]] (Greek {{lang|grc|Δάσαι Δάοι, Δάαι, Δαι, Δάσαι}} ''Dáoi'', ''Dáai'', ''Dai'', ''Dasai''; Latin ''Dahae'', ''Daci''), an Indo-European people located east of the [[Caspian Sea]], until the 1st millennium BC. Scholars have suggested that there were links between the two peoples since ancient times.{{sfn| Kephart|1949|loc=p. 28: The Persians knew that the Dahae and the other Massagetae were kin of the inhabitants of Scythia west of the Caspian Sea}}{{sfn| Chakraberty|1948 |p=34 |ps=: "Dasas or Dasyu of the RigVeda are the Dahae of Avesta, Daci of the Romans, Dakaoi (Hindi Dakku) of the Greeks"}}{{sfn|Pliny (the Elder)| Rackham|1971|p=375}}{{sfn|Van Den Gheyn|1886|p=170}} The historian [[David Gordon White]] has, moreover, stated that the "Dacians ... appear to be related to the Dahae".{{sfn|White|1991|p=239}}

By the end of the first century AD, all the inhabitants of the lands which now form Romania were known to the Romans as Daci, with the exception of some [[Celts|Celtic]] and [[Germanic tribes]] who infiltrated from the west, and [[Sarmatian]] and related people from the east.{{sfn|Crossland|Boardman|1982|p=837}}

=== Carpi and Costoboci ===
{{Main|Carpi (people)|Costoboci}}
The Carpi were a sizeable group of tribes, who lived beyond the north-eastern boundary of Roman Dacia. The majority view among modern scholars is that the Carpi were a North Thracian tribe and a subgroup of the Dacians.<ref>* {{harvnb|Goffart|2006| p=205}}
* {{harvnb|Bunson |1995| p=74}}
* {{harvnb|MacKendrick| 2000| p=117}}
* {{harvnb|Parvan| Florescu| 1982| p=136}}
* {{harvnb|Burns |1991| pp=26 and 27}}
* {{harvnb|Odahl|2003|p=19}}
* {{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=19}}
* {{harvnb|Millar| 1970}}</ref> However, some historians classify them as Slavs.{{sfn | Waldman | Mason| 2006 | p=129}}
According to Heather, the Carpi were Dacians from the eastern foothills of the Carpathian range – modern Moldavia and Wallachia – who had not been brought under direct Roman rule at the time of Trajan's conquest of Transylvania Dacia. After they generated a new degree of political unity among themselves in the course of the third century, these Dacian groups came to be known collectively as the Carpi.{{sfn | Heather | 2010 | p=114}}
[[File:Captive dacian pushkin.JPG|thumb|Dacian cast in [[Pushkin Museum]], after original in [[Lateran Museum]]. Early second century AD.]]

The ancient sources about the Carpi, before 104 AD, located them on a territory situated between the western side of Eastern European Galicia and the mouth of the Danube.{{sfn|Pârvan|1926|p=239}} The name of the tribe is homonymous with the Carpathian mountains.{{sfn|Schütte|1917|p=100}} Carpi and Carpathian are Dacian words derived from the root ''(s)ker''- "cut" cf. Albanian ''karp'' "stone" and Sanskrit ''kar''- "cut".{{sfn | Russu | 1969 | pp=114–115}}{{sfn | Tomaschek | 1883 |p=403}}A quote from the 6th-century Byzantine chronicler [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] referring to the [[Carpo-Dacians]] (Greek: Καρποδάκαι, Latin: ''Carpo-Dacae''), who attacked the Romans in the late 4th century, is seen as evidence of their Dacian ethnicity. In fact, Carpi/Carpodaces is the term used for Dacians outside of Dacia proper.{{sfn | Goffart | 2006 |p=205}} However, that the Carpi were Dacians is shown not so much by the form Καρποδάκαι in [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] as by their characteristic place-names in –''dava'', given by Ptolemy in their country.{{sfn | Minns | 2011 | p=124}} The origin and ethnic affiliations of the Carpi have been debated over the years; in modern times they are closely associated with the Carpathian Mountains, and a good case has been made for attributing to the Carpi a distinct material culture, "a developed form of the Geto-Dacian La Tene culture", often known as the Poienesti culture, which is characteristic of this area.{{sfn| Nixon| Saylor Rodgers|1995|p=116}}

The main view is that the ''[[Costoboci]]'' were ethnically Dacian.<ref>* {{harvnb|Heather|2010| p=131}}
*{{harvnb|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=184}}
* {{harvnb|Poghirc|1989| p= 302}}
* {{harvnb|Pârvan |1928| pp= 184 and 188}}
*{{harvnb|Nandris|1976|p=729}}
* {{harvnb|Oledzki|2000| p= 525}}
* {{harvnb|Astarita|1983| p= 62}}</ref> Others considered them a Slavic or Sarmatian tribe.{{sfn | Hrushevskyi | 1997 | p=100}}{{sfn|Waldman|Mason|2006|p=184}} There was also a Celtic influence, so that some consider them a mixed Celtic and Thracian group that appear, after Trajan's conquest, as a Dacian group within the Celtic superstratum.{{sfn|Nandris|1976|p=729}} The Costoboci inhabited the southern slopes of the Carpathians.{{sfn | Hrushevskyi | 1997 | p=98}} Ptolemy named the Coestoboci (Costoboci in Roman sources) twice, showing them divided by the Dniester and the Peucinian (Carpathian) Mountains. This suggests that they lived on both sides of the Carpathians, but it is also possible that two accounts about the same people were combined.{{sfn | Hrushevskyi | 1997 | p=98}} There was also a group, the Transmontani, that some modern scholars identify as Dacian Transmontani Costoboci of the extreme north.{{sfn|Schütte|1917|p=100}}{{sfn|Parvan |Florescu |1982|p=135}} The name Transmontani was from the Dacians' Latin,{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} literally "people over the mountains". Mullenhoff identified these with the Transiugitani, another Dacian tribe north of the Carpathian mountains.{{sfn|Schütte|1917|p=18}}

Based on the account of [[Dio Cassius]], Heather (2010) considers that Hasding Vandals, around 171 AD, attempted to take control of lands which previously belonged to the free Dacian group called the Costoboci.{{sfn | Heather | 2010 | p=131}} Hrushevskyi mentions that the earlier widespread view that these Carpathian tribes were Slavic has no basis. This would be contradicted by the Coestobocan names themselves that are known from the inscriptions, written by a Coestobocan and therefore presumably accurately. These names sound quite unlike anything Slavic.{{sfn | Hrushevskyi | 1997 | p=100}} Scholars such as Tomaschek, Schütte and Russu consider these Costobocian names to be Thraco-Dacian.{{sfn | Tomaschek | 1883 | p=407}}{{sfn|Schütte|1917|p=143}}{{sfn | Russu | 1969 | pp= 99,116 }}

=== Culture ===
Body-painting was customary among the Dacians.{{specify|date = October 2013}} It is probable that the tattooing originally had a religious significance.{{sfn | Bury | Cook |Adcock|Percival Charlesworth| 1954 |p=543 }} They practiced symbolic-ritual tattooing or body painting for both men and women, with hereditary symbols transmitted up to the fourth generation.{{sfn|Oltean|2007|p=114}}

Dacian religion was considered by the classic sources as a key source of authority, suggesting to some that Dacia was a predominantly theocratic state led by priest-kings. However, the layout of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa indicates the possibility of co-rulership, with a separate high king and high priest.{{sfn | Taylor | 2001 | p=215 }} Ancient sources recorded the names of several Dacian high priests (Deceneus, Comosicus and Vezina) and various orders of priests: "god-worshipers", "smoke-walkers" and "founders".{{sfn | Taylor | 2001 | p=215 }} Both Hellenistic and Oriental influences are discernible in the religious background, alongside [[chthonic]] and solar motifs.{{sfn | Taylor | 2001 | p=215 }}
According to Herodotus' account of the story of [[Zalmoxis]] or Zamolxis,{{sfn|Herodotus|440 BC|loc=4.93–4.97}} the Getae (speaking the same language as the Dacians and the Thracians, according to [[Strabo]]) believed in the immortality of the soul, and regarded death as merely a change of country. Their chief priest held a prominent position as the representative of the supreme deity, Zalmoxis, who is called also Gebeleizis by some among them.{{sfn|Herodotus|440 BC|loc=4.93–4.97}}<ref>Histories by Herodotus Book 4 translated by G. Rawlinson</ref> Strabo wrote about the high priest of King Burebista [[Deceneus]]: "a man who not only had wandered through [[Egypt]], but also had thoroughly learned certain prognostics through which he would pretend to tell the divine will; and within a short time he was set up as god (as I said when relating the story of Zamolxis)".{{sfn|Strabo|20 AD|loc=VII 3,11}}

[[File:Relief Bendis BM 2155.jpg|thumb|Votive stele representing Bendis wearing a Dacian cap at the [[British Museum]] in [[London]]]]

The Goth [[Jordanes]] in his ''[[Getica]]'' (''[[The origin and deeds of the Goths]]''), also gives an account of Deceneus the highest priest, and considered Dacians a nation related to the Goths. Besides Zalmoxis, the Dacians believed in other deities, such as Gebeleizis, the god of storm and lightning, possibly related to the Thracian god [[Zibelthiurdos]].{{sfn|Tomaschek|1893}} Another important deity was [[Bendis]], goddess of the moon and the hunt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theoi.com/Thrakios/Bendis.html|title=BENDIS - Thracian Goddess of the Moon & Hunting|website=www.theoi.com}}</ref> By a decree of the [[Dodona|oracle of Dodona]], which required the Athenians to grant land for a shrine or temple, her cult was introduced into [[Attica, Greece|Attica]] by immigrant Thracian residents,{{efn|1=Extensive discussion of whether the date is 429 or 413 BC was reviewed and newly analyzed in Christopher Planeaux, "The Date of Bendis' Entry into Attica" ''The Classical Journal'' '''96'''.2 (December 2000:165–192). Planeaux offers a reconstruction of the inscription mentioning the first introduction, p}} and, though Thracian and Athenian processions remained separate, both cult and festival became so popular that in Plato's time (c. 429–13 BC) its festivities were naturalized as an official ceremony of the Athenian city-state, called the Bendideia.{{efn|1=Fifth-century fragmentary inscriptions that record formal descrees regarding formal aspects of the Bendis cult, are reproduced in Planeaux 2000:170f}}