Editing History of London (section)

== Early history ==

===Roman London (AD&nbsp;47–410)===

{{main|Roman London}}
[[File:Antoninianus Carausius leg4-RIC 0069v.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Carausius]] coin from Londinium mint]]
[[File:Constantius I capturing London after defeating Allectus Beaurains hoard.jpg|thumb|200px|A medal of [[Constantius I]] capturing [[London]] (inscribed as {{Smallcaps|lon}}) in 296 after defeating [[Allectus]]. From [[Beaurains Treasure|Beaurains treasure]].]]
''Londinium'' was established as a civilian town by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] about four years<ref>[http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/view/no1poultry_molas_2007/ Number 1 Poultry (ONE 94), Museum of London Archaeology, 2013]. Archaeology Data Service, The University of York.</ref> after the [[Roman conquest of Britain|invasion of AD&nbsp;43]]. London, like Rome, was founded on the point of the river where it was narrow enough to bridge and the strategic location of the city provided easy access to much of Europe. Early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, roughly equivalent to the size of [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]]. In around AD&nbsp;60, it was destroyed by the [[Iceni]] led by their queen [[Boudica]]. The city was quickly rebuilt as a planned Roman town and recovered after perhaps 10 years; the city grew rapidly over the following decades.

Although some sources claim that during the 2nd century AD ''Londinium'' replaced [[Camulodunum|Colchester]] as the capital of [[Roman Britain]] (Britannia) there is no surviving evidence to prove it was ever the capital of Roman Britain. Its population was around 60,000 inhabitants. It boasted major public buildings, including the largest [[basilica]] north of the Alps, [[Roman temple|temples]], [[Thermae|bath houses]], an [[amphitheatre]] and a large [[fort]] for the city garrison. Political instability and recession from the 3rd century onwards led to a slow decline.

At some time between 180 and 225, the Romans built the defensive [[London Wall]] around the landward side of the city. The wall was about {{convert|3|km|mi|0}} long, {{convert|6|m|ft|0}} high, and {{convert|2.5|m|ft|0}} thick. The wall would survive for another 1,600 years and define the [[City of London]]'s perimeters for centuries to come. The perimeters of the present City are roughly defined by the line of the ancient wall.

Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, [[continental Europe]], the [[Middle East]], and [[North Africa]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-34809804 DNA study finds London was ethnically diverse from start], [[BBC]], 23 November 2015</ref>

In the late 3rd century, Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.romeacrosseurope.com/?p=2246|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804183841/http://www.romeacrosseurope.com/?p=2246|url-status=usurped|archive-date=4 August 2016|title=Londinium – Excavating London's Past|date=2015-07-30|website=Rome Across Europe|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-15}}</ref> This led, from around 255 onwards, to the construction of an additional riverside wall. Six of the traditional seven city gates of London are of Roman origin, namely: [[Ludgate]], [[Newgate]], [[Aldersgate]], [[Cripplegate]], [[Bishopsgate]] and [[Aldgate]] ([[Moorgate]] is the exception, being of medieval origin).

By the 5th century, the Roman Empire was in rapid decline and in 410, the Roman occupation of Britannia came to an end. Following this, the Roman city also went into rapid decline and by the end of the 5th century was practically abandoned.

===Anglo-Saxon London (5th century – 1066)===
{{Main|Anglo-Saxon London}}
Until recently it was believed that [[Anglo-Saxon]] settlements initially avoided the area immediately around Londinium. However, the discovery in 2008 of an Anglo-Saxon cemetery at [[Covent Garden]] indicates that the incomers had begun to settle there at least as early as the 6th century and possibly in the 5th. The main focus of this settlement was outside the Roman walls, clustering a short distance to the west along what is now the [[Strand, London|Strand]], between the [[Aldwych]] and [[Trafalgar Square]]. It was known as ''Lundenwic'', the ''-wic'' [[suffix]] here denoting a trading settlement. Recent excavations have also highlighted the population density and relatively sophisticated urban organisation of this earlier Anglo-Saxon London, which was laid out on a grid pattern and grew to house a likely population of 10,000 to 12,000.

Early Anglo-Saxon London belonged to a people known as the [[Middle Saxons]], from whom the name of the county of [[Middlesex]] is derived, but who probably also occupied the approximate area of modern [[Hertfordshire]] and [[Surrey]]. However, by the early 7th century the London area had been incorporated into the kingdom of the [[East Saxons]]. In 604 King [[Saeberht of Essex|Sæberht of Essex]] converted to Christianity and London received [[Mellitus]], its first post-Roman bishop.

At this time Essex was under the overlordship of King [[Æthelberht of Kent]], and it was under Æthelberht's patronage that Mellitus founded the first [[St. Paul's Cathedral]], traditionally said to be on the site of an old Roman Temple of Diana (although [[Christopher Wren]] found no evidence of this). It would have only been a modest church at first and may well have been destroyed after he was expelled from the city by Saeberht's [[paganism|pagan]] successors.

The permanent establishment of [[Christianity]] in the East Saxon kingdom took place during the reign of King [[Sigeberht the Good|Sigeberht II]] in the 650s. During the 8th century, the kingdom of [[Mercia]] extended its dominance over south-eastern England, initially through overlordship which at times developed into outright annexation. London seems to have come under direct Mercian control in the 730s.

[[File:Alfred the Great silver coin.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A silver coin of [[Alfred the Great|Alfred]], with the legend {{sc|ÆLFRED REX}}]]
[[File:Statue d'Alfred le Grand à Winchester.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The statue of [[Alfred the Great]] at [[Winchester]], erected 1899]]

[[Viking]] attacks dominated most of the 9th century, becoming increasingly common from around 830 onwards. London was sacked in 842 and again in 851. The [[Denmark|Danish]] "[[Great Heathen Army]]", which had rampaged across England since 865, wintered in London in 871. The city remained in Danish hands until 886, when it was captured by the forces of King [[Alfred the Great]] of [[Wessex]] and reincorporated into Mercia, then governed under Alfred's sovereignty by his son-in-law [[Ealdorman]] [[Earl Aethelred of Mercia|Æthelred]].

[[File:Southwark Bridge City Plaque.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|A plaque in the [[City of London]] noting the re-establishment of the Roman walled city]]

Around this time the focus of settlement moved within the old Roman walls for the sake of defence, and the city became known as ''[[Lundenburh]]''. The Roman walls were repaired and the defensive ditch re-cut, while the bridge was probably rebuilt at this time. A second fortified [[borough]] was established on the south bank at [[Southwark]], the ''Suþringa Geworc'' (defensive work of the men of [[Surrey]]). The old settlement of ''Lundenwic'' became known as the ''eald wic'' or "old settlement", a name which survives today as Aldwych.

From this point, the City of London began to develop its own unique local government. Following Æthelred's death in 911 it was transferred to Wessex, preceding the absorption of the rest of Mercia in 918. Although it faced competition for political pre-eminence in the united [[Kingdom of England]] from the traditional West Saxon centre of [[Winchester]], London's size and commercial wealth brought it a steadily increasing importance as a focus of governmental activity. King [[Athelstan of England|Athelstan]] held many meetings of the ''witan'' in London and issued laws from there, while King [[Æthelred the Unready]] issued the [[Laws of London]] there in 978.

Following the resumption of Viking attacks in the reign of Æthelred, London was unsuccessfully attacked in 994 by an army under King [[Sweyn Forkbeard]] of Denmark. As English resistance to the sustained and escalating Danish onslaught finally collapsed in 1013, London repulsed an attack by the Danes and was the last place to hold out while the rest of the country submitted to Sweyn, but by the end of the year it too capitulated and Æthelred fled abroad. Sweyn died just five weeks after having been proclaimed king and Æthelred was restored to the throne, but Sweyn's son [[Canute the Great|Cnut]] returned to the attack in 1015.

After Æthelred's death at London in 1016 his son [[Edmund Ironside]] was proclaimed king there by the ''[[witangemot]]'' and left to gather forces in Wessex. London was then subjected to a systematic siege by Cnut but was relieved by King Edmund's army; when Edmund again left to recruit reinforcements in Wessex the Danes resumed the siege but were again unsuccessful. However, following his defeat at the [[Battle of Assandun]] Edmund ceded to Cnut all of England north of the Thames, including London, and his death a few weeks later left Cnut in control of the whole country.

A Norse saga tells of a battle when King Æthelred returned to attack Danish-occupied London. According to the saga, the Danes lined [[London Bridge]] and showered the attackers with spears. Undaunted, the attackers pulled the roofs off nearby houses and held them over their heads in the boats. Thus protected, they were able to get close enough to the bridge to attach ropes to the piers and pull the bridge down, thus ending the Viking occupation of London. This story presumably relates to Æthelred's return to power after Sweyn's death in 1014, but there is no strong evidence of any such struggle for control of London on that occasion.

Following the extinction of Cnut's dynasty in 1042 English rule was restored under [[Edward the Confessor]]. He was responsible for the foundation of [[Westminster Abbey]] and spent much of his time upstream of the City at [[Westminster]], which from this time steadily supplanted the City itself as the centre of government. Edward's death at Westminster in 1066 without a clear heir led to a succession dispute and the [[Norman conquest of England]]. Earl [[Harold Godwinson]] was elected king by the ''witangemot'' and crowned at Westminster Abbey, but was defeated and killed by [[William I of England|William II, Duke of Normandy]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]]. The surviving members of the ''witan'' met in London and elected King Edward's young nephew [[Edgar the Ætheling]] as king.

The [[Normans]] advanced to the south bank of the Thames opposite London, where they defeated an English attack and burned Southwark, but were unable to storm the bridge. They moved upstream and crossed the river at [[Wallingford, Oxfordshire|Wallingford]] before advancing on London from the north-west. The resolve of the English leadership to resist collapsed and the chief citizens of London went out together with the leading members of the Church and aristocracy to submit to William at [[Berkhamsted]], although according to some accounts there was a subsequent violent clash when the Normans reached the city. Having occupied London, William was crowned king in Westminster Abbey.

===Norman and Medieval London (1066 – late 15th century)===
{{Main|Norman and Medieval London}}
[[File:towrlndn.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|A depiction of the imprisonment of [[Charles, Duke of Orléans]] in the [[Tower of London]], from a 15th-century manuscript. [[Old London Bridge]] is in the background]]

The new Norman regime established new fortresses within the city to dominate the native population. By far the most important of these was the [[Tower of London]] at the eastern end of the city, where the initial timber fortification was rapidly replaced by the construction of the first stone castle in England. The smaller forts of [[Baynard's Castle]] and [[Montfichet's Castle]] were also established along the waterfront. King William also granted a [[charter]] in 1067 confirming the city's existing rights, privileges and laws. London was a centre of England's nascent [[History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)|Jewish population]], the first of whom arrived in about 1070.<ref>Jacobs, Joseph. TITLE. JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2018-07-04. URL:http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10098-london. Accessed: 2018-07-04. (Archived by WebCite® at)</ref> Its growing self-government was consolidated by the election rights granted by [[John of England|King John]] in 1199 and 1215.

On 17 October 1091 a [[London tornado of 1091|tornado]] rated [[TORRO scale|T8]] on the [[TORRO]] scale (equivalent to an F4 on the [[Fujita scale]]) hit London;{{cn|date=March 2025}} it directly struck the [[St Mary-le-Bow|church of St. Mary-le-Bow]]; four [[rafter]]s {{cvt|7.9|m|0}} long were said to have been buried so deep into the ground that only {{cvt|1.2|m|0}} was visible. Other churches in the area were destroyed as well; it was reported to have also destroyed over 600 houses (although most of them were primarily wood) and hit the [[London Bridge]], after the tornado the bridge was rebuilt in stone. The tornado caused two deaths and an unknown number of injuries; this tornado is mentioned in [[chronicle]]s by [[Florence of Worcester]] and [[William of Malmesbury]], the latter of the two describing it as "a great spectacle for those watching from afar, but a terrifying experience for those standing near".{{cn|date=March 2025}}

In 1097, [[William Rufus]], the son of William the Conqueror, began the construction of Westminster Hall, which became the focus of the [[Palace of Westminster]].

In 1176, construction began of the most famous incarnation of [[London Bridge]] (completed in 1209), which was built on the site of several earlier timber bridges. This bridge would last for 600 years, and remained London's only bridge across the [[River Thames]] until 1739.

[[Antisemitism|Antisemitic]] violence against [[Jews]] took place in 1190, after it was rumoured that the new King had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.<ref name=Jacobs>{{cite web|last1=Jacobs|first1=Joseph|title=England|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5764-england|website=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|year=1906}}</ref>

In 1216, during the [[First Barons' War]] London was occupied by [[Louis VIII of France|Prince Louis of France]], who had been called in by the baronial rebels against [[John of England|King John]] and was acclaimed as King of England in [[Old St. Paul's Cathedral|St Paul's Cathedral]]. However, following John's death in 1217 Louis's supporters reverted to their [[Plantagenet]] allegiance, rallying round John's son [[Henry III of England|Henry III]], and Louis was forced to withdraw from England.

In 1224, after an accusation of [[ritual murder]], the Jewish community was subjected to a steep punitive levy. Then in 1232, Henry III confiscated the principal [[synagogue]] of the London Jewish community because he claimed their chanting was audible in a neighbouring church.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Jewish Community of London |url=https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/london-england |publisher=[[The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot]] |access-date=2 July 2018 |archive-date=25 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160725165154/https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/london-england |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1264, during the [[Second Barons' War]], [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]]'s rebels occupied London and killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.<ref name=Mundill2010>{{Cite book |publisher = Continuum |ol = 24816680M |isbn = 9781847251862 |location = London |title = The King's Jews |url = https://archive.org/details/kingsjewsmoneyma00mund |author = Robin R. Mundill |lccn = 2010282921 |date = 2010 |oclc = 466343661 }}; see p. 88–99</ref>

London's Jewish community was forced to leave England by the [[Edict of Expulsion]] issued by [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]] in 1290. They left for France, Holland and farther afield; their property was seized, and many suffered robbery and murder as they departed.<ref name=Jacobs/>

Over the following centuries, London would shake off the heavy French cultural and linguistic influence which had been there since the times of the Norman conquest. The city would figure heavily in the development of [[Early Modern English]].
[[File:Map of London, 1300.svg|thumb|300px|London {{Circa|1300}}]]

During the [[Peasants' Revolt]] of 1381, London was invaded by rebels led by [[Wat Tyler]]. A group of peasants stormed the [[Tower of London]] and executed the [[Lord Chancellor]], Archbishop [[Simon Sudbury]], and the [[Lord Treasurer]]. The peasants looted the city and set fire to numerous buildings. Tyler was stabbed to death by the Lord Mayor [[William Walworth]] in a confrontation at [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] and the revolt collapsed.

Trade increased steadily during the [[England in the Middle Ages|Middle Ages]], and London grew heavily as a result. In 1100, London's population was somewhat more than 15,000. By 1300, it had grown to roughly 80,000. London lost at least half of its population during the [[Black Death]] in the mid-14th century, but its economic and political importance stimulated a quick recovery despite further epidemics. Trade in London was organised into various [[guild]]s, which effectively controlled the city, and elected the [[Lord Mayor of the City of London]].

Medieval London was made up of narrow and twisting streets, and most of the buildings were made from combustible materials such as timber and straw, which made fire a constant threat, while sanitation in cities was of low-quality.