Editing Herod the Great (section)

== Reign in Judea ==
[[File:Herodian Kingdom political map.svg|thumb|The Herodian kingdom at its greatest extent]]
Herod's rule marked a new beginning in the history of Judea. Judea had been ruled autonomously by the [[Hasmonean king]]s from 140 until 63&nbsp;BCE. The Hasmonean kings retained their titles, but became clients of Rome after the conquest by Pompey in 63&nbsp;BCE. Herod overthrew the Hasmonean [[Antigonus II Mattathias|Antigonus]] in a three-year-long war between 37 and 34&nbsp;BCE, ruled under Roman overlordship until his death {{circa|4&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}, and officially passed on the throne to his sons, thus establishing his own, so-called [[Herodian dynasty]].

[[File:Herod coin1.jpg|thumb|Obverse of a Herodian copper coin, bearing the legend {{lang|grc|ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΗΡΩΔΟΥ}} {{tlit|grc|[[Basileus|Basileōs]] Hērōdou}}]]
Herod was granted the title of "King of Judea" by the [[Roman Senate]].{{sfn|''The Jewish War''|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+BJ+1.14.4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148 1.14.4]: "...Antony then resolved to get him made king of the Jews ... told them that it was for their advantage in the [[Roman–Parthian Wars|Parthian war]] that Herod should be king; so they all gave their votes for it. And when the senate was separated{{clarify|date=December 2015}}, Antony and Caesar went out, with Herod between them; while the [[consul]] and the rest of the [[magistrates]] went before them, in order to offer sacrifices [to the Roman gods], and to lay the decree in the Capitol. Antony also made a feast for Herod on the first day of his reign."}} As such, he was a vassal of the [[Roman Empire]], expected to support the interests of his Roman patrons. Nonetheless, just when Herod obtained leadership in Judea, his rule faced two threats. The first threat came from his mother-in-law Alexandra, who sought to regain power for her family, the Hasmoneans,{{sfn|Perowne|2003|p=70}} whose dynasty Herod had overthrown in 37&nbsp;BCE (see [[Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)|Siege of Jerusalem]]).{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=267}} In the same year, [[Cleopatra]] married the Roman leader Antony.{{sfn|Perowne|2003|p=67}} Recognizing Cleopatra's influence over Antony, Alexandra asked Cleopatra for aid in making Aristobulus III the High Priest. As a member of the Hasmonean family, Aristobulus III might partially repair the fortunes of the Hasmoneans if made High Priest. Alexandra's request was made, but Cleopatra urged Alexandra to leave Judea with Aristobulus III and visit Antony. Herod received word of this plot, and feared that if Antony met Aristobolus III in person he might name Aristobulus III King of Judea. This concern induced Herod, in 35&nbsp;BCE, to order the assassination of Aristobulus, ending this first threat to Herod's throne.{{sfn|Perowne|2003|pp=70–72}} The marriage of 37&nbsp;BCE also sparked a power struggle between Roman leaders Octavian, who would later be called [[Augustus]], and [[Mark Antony|Antony]].{{sfn|Perowne|2003|p=67}} Herod, owing his throne to Rome, had to pick a side, and he chose Antony.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=270}} In 31 at Actium, Antony lost to Octavian, posing a second threat to Herod's rule.{{sfn|Perowne|2003|p=75}} Herod had to regain Octavian's support if he was to keep his throne.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=270}} At Rhodes in 31&nbsp;BCE, Herod, through his ability to keep Judea open to Rome as a link to the wealth of Syria and Egypt, and ability to defend the frontier, convinced Octavian that he would be loyal to him.{{sfn|Perowne|2003|pp=77–80, 92–93}} Herod continued to rule his subjects as he saw fit. Despite the autonomy afforded to Herod in his internal reign over Judea, restrictions were placed upon him in his relations with other kingdoms.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=270}}

Herod's support from the Roman Empire was a major factor in enabling him to maintain his authority over Judea. There have been mixed interpretations concerning Herod's popularity during his reign. In ''The Jewish War'', Josephus characterizes Herod's rule in generally favorable terms, and gives Herod the benefit of the doubt for the infamous events that took place during his reign. However, in his later work, ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', Josephus emphasizes the tyrannical authority that many scholars have come to associate with Herod's reign.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=271}}

Herod's despotic rule has been demonstrated by many of his security measures aimed at suppressing the contempt his people, especially Jews, had towards him. For instance, it has been suggested{{By whom|date=July 2024}} that Herod used secret police to monitor and report the feelings of the general populace toward him. He sought to prohibit protests, and had opponents removed by force.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=271}} He had a bodyguard of 2,000 soldiers.<ref name="Rocca2009">{{Cite book |last=Rocca |first=Samuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=znRtCb6mXLIC |title=The Army of Herod the Great |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-84603-206-6 |pages=15–16 |access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> Josephus describes various units of Herod's personal guard taking part in Herod's funeral, including the ''Doryphnoroi'', and a [[Thracian]], [[Celts|Celtic]] (probably [[Gauls|Gallic]]) and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] contingent.<ref name="Rocca2009" /> While the term ''Doryphnoroi'' does not have an ethnic connotation, the unit was probably composed of distinguished veteran soldiers and young men from the most influential Jewish families.<ref name="Rocca2009" /> Thracians had served in the Jewish armies since the Hasmonean dynasty, while the Celtic contingent were former bodyguards of Cleopatra given as a gift by Augustus to Herod following the [[Battle of Actium]].<ref name="Rocca2009" /> The Germanic contingent was modeled upon Augustus's personal bodyguard, the ''[[Numerus Batavorum|Germani Corporis Custodes]]'', responsible for guarding the palace.<ref name="Rocca2009" />[[File:Jerusalem Modell BW 2.JPG|thumb|[[Herod's temple|Herod's Temple]] as depicted on the [[Holyland Model of Jerusalem]]. The expansion of the Temple was Herod's most ambitious project.]]
[[File:125425_caesarea_national_park_PikiWiki_Israel.jpg|thumb|Ruins of [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]]'s harbor]]
Herod undertook many colossal building projects. Around 19&nbsp;BCE, he began a massive expansion project on the [[Temple Mount]]. In addition to fully rebuilding and enlarging the [[Second Temple|Second Jewish Temple]], he artificially expanded the platform on which it stood, doubling it in size. Today's [[Western Wall]] formed part of the retaining perimeter wall of this platform. In addition, Herod also used the latest technology in [[hydraulic cement]] and underwater construction to build the harbor at [[Caesarea Maritima]].{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=271}} While Herod's zeal for building transformed Judea, his motives were not selfless. Although he built fortresses ([[Masada]], [[Herodium]], [[Alexandrium]], [[Hyrcania (fortress)|Hyrcania]], and [[Machaerus]]) in which he and his family could take refuge in case of insurrection, these vast projects were also intended to gain the support of the Jews and improve his reputation as a leader.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|pp=269–273}}  Herod also built [[Sebastia, Nablus|Sebaste]] and other pagan cities because he wanted to appeal to the country's substantial pagan population.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=271}} In order to fund these projects, Herod utilized a Hasmonean taxation system that heavily burdened the Judean people. Nevertheless, these enterprises brought employment and opportunities for the people's provision.<ref name="Levine1998">Levine, Amy-Jill. "Visions of Kingdoms: From Pompey to the First Jewish Revolt," in ''The Oxford History of the Biblical World'', ed. Michael D. Coogan. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 357.</ref> In some instances, Herod took it upon himself to provide for his people in times of need, such as during a severe famine that occurred in 25&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jagersma |first=Henk |title=A History of Israel from Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba |publisher=SCM Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8006-1890-2 |location=London |page=107 |translator-last=Bowden |translator-first=John}}</ref>

Although he made many attempts at conforming to traditional Jewish laws, there were more instances where Herod was insensitive, which constitutes one of the major Jewish complaints of Herod as highlighted in Josephus' ''Antiquities of the Jews''. In Jerusalem, Herod introduced foreign forms of entertainment, and erected a golden eagle at the entrance of the Temple,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bourgel |first=Jonathan |date=1 April 2021 |title=Herod's golden eagle on the Temple gate: a reconsideration |url=https://www.academia.edu/45647596 |journal=Journal of Jewish Studies |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=23–44 |doi=10.18647/3480/jjs-2021 |s2cid=233561671}}</ref> which suggested a greater interest in the welfare of Rome than of Jews.<ref name="Levine1998" /> Herod's taxes garnered a bad reputation: his constant concern for his reputation led him to make frequent, expensive gifts, increasingly emptying the kingdom's coffers, and such lavish spending upset his Jewish subjects.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|pp=269–273}} The two major Jewish sects of the day, the [[Pharisees]] and the [[Sadducees]], both showed opposition to Herod. The Pharisees were discontented because Herod disregarded many of their demands with respect to the Temple's construction. The Sadducees, who were closely associated with priestly responsibilities in the Temple, opposed Herod because he replaced their high priests with outsiders from [[Babylonia]] and Alexandria, in an effort to gain support from the Jewish Diaspora.<ref>Schiffman, Lawrence H. "The Jewish–Christian Schism," in ''From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism'' (Hoboken: Ktav Publishing House, 1991), p. 145.</ref> Herod's outreach efforts gained him little, and at the end of his reign anger and dissatisfaction were common amongst Jews. Heavy outbreaks of violence and riots followed Herod's death in many cities, including Jerusalem, as pent-up resentments boiled over. The scope of the disturbances sparked hopes that the Jews of Judea might some day overthrow the Roman overlords, hopes reawakened decades later in the outbreak of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] in 66&nbsp;CE.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|pp=269–273}}