Editing Henry Morgan (section)

==Career as a privateer==
[[File:Christopher Myngs.jpg|thumb|Sir [[Christopher Myngs]], under whom Morgan served]]
It is probable that in the early 1660s Morgan was active with a group of privateers led by Sir [[Christopher Myngs]] attacking Spanish cities and settlements in the Caribbean and Central America when England was at war with Spain. It is likely that in 1663 Morgan captained one of the ships in Myngs' fleet, and took part in the attack on [[Santiago de Cuba]] and the [[Sack of Campeche (1663)|Sack of Campeche]] on the [[Yucatán Peninsula]].{{sfn|Blalock|2000}}{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=444}}{{sfn|Talty|2007|pp=44–45}}{{refn|Although England and Spain were not at war (the six-year [[Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)|Anglo-Spanish War]] had ended in 1660) [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] was concerned about the Spanish attitude to the fledgling English territories in the Caribbean. He instructed the governor of Jamaica, [[Thomas Hickman-Windsor, 1st Earl of Plymouth|Lord Windsor]], to put military pressure on the Spaniards in order to retain the English presence in the region.{{sfn|Knighton|2008}}|group=n}}

Sir [[Thomas Modyford]] had been appointed the [[Governor of Jamaica]] in February 1664 with instructions to limit the activities of the privateers; he made a proclamation against their activities on 11 June 1664, but economic practicalities led to his reversing the policy by the end of the month.{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004b}} About 1,500 privateers used Jamaica as a base for their activity and brought much revenue to the island. As the planting community of 5,000 was still new and developing, the revenue from the privateers was needed to avoid economic collapse.{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004b}} A privateer was granted a [[letter of marque]] which gave him a licence to attack and seize vessels, normally of a specified country, or with conditions attached. A portion of all spoils obtained by the privateers was given to the sovereign or the issuing ambassador.{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=xvii}}

In August 1665 Morgan, along with fellow captains [[John Morris (pirate)|John Morris]] and Jacob Fackman, returned to [[Port Royal]] with a large cargo of valuables. Modyford was impressed enough with the spoils to report back to the government that "Central America was the properest {{sic}} place for an attack on the Spanish Indies".{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}}{{sfn|Allen|1976|p=16}} Morgan's activities over the following two years are not documented, but in early 1666 he was married in Port Royal to his cousin, Mary Morgan, the daughter of [[Edward Morgan (governor)|Edward]], the island's Deputy Governor; the marriage gave Henry access to the upper levels of Jamaican society. The couple had no children.{{sfn|Allen|1976|pp=12–13}}

Hostilities between the English and Dutch in 1664 led to a change in government policy: colonial governors were now authorised to issue letters of marque against the Dutch.{{refn|The hostilities led to the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] (1665–1667).{{sfn|Latimer|2009|p=146}}|group=n}} Many of the privateers, including Morgan, did not take up the letters, although an expedition to conquer the Dutch island of [[Sint Eustatius]] led to the death of Morgan's father-in-law, who was leading a 600-man force.{{sfn|Latimer|2009|p=148}}

Sources differ about Morgan's activities in 1666.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=563}} H. R. Allen, in his biography of Morgan, considers the privateer was the second-in-command to Captain [[Edward Mansvelt]]. Mansvelt had been issued a letter of marque for the invasion of [[Curaçao]], although he did not attack [[Willemstad]], the main city, either after he decided that it was too well defended or that there was insufficient plunder.{{sfn|Allen|1976|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=568}}{{refn|Mansvelt instead selected the more lucrative city of [[Cartago, Costa Rica|Cartago]], the capital of Costa Rica, as the target for his attack.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=568}}|group=n}} Alternatively, Jan Rogoziński and Stephan Talty, in their histories of Morgan and piracy, record that during the year, Morgan oversaw the Port Royal [[militia]] and the defence of Jamaica; [[Fort Charles (Jamaica)|Fort Charles]] at Port Royal was partly constructed under his leadership.{{sfn|Talty|2007|pp=78–79}}{{sfn|Rogoziński|1995|p=228}}{{refn|Rogoziński points out that the erroneous report of Morgan's presence on Mansvelt's expedition was from [[Alexandre Exquemelin]]'s history ''The Buccaneers of America'', although there is no record of Morgan's being part of Mansvelt's group.{{sfn|Rogoziński|1995|p=228}}|group=n}} It was around this time that Morgan purchased his first plantation on Jamaica.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=738}}

===Puerto del Príncipe (1667)===
{{further|Henry Morgan's raid on Puerto del Príncipe}}
[[Image:Puerto del Príncipe - being sacked in 1668 - Project Gutenberg eText 19396.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Camagüey|Puerto del Príncipe]] being sacked in 1668]]
In 1667 diplomatic relations between the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]] and Spain were worsening, and rumours began to circulate in Jamaica about a possible Spanish invasion. Modyford authorised privateers to take action against the Spanish, and issued a letter of marque to Morgan "to draw together the English privateers and take prisoners of the Spanish nation, whereby he might inform of the intention of that enemy to attack Jamaica, of which I have frequent and strong advice".{{sfn|Latimer|2009|p=164}} He was given the rank of admiral and, in January 1668, assembled 10 ships and 500 men for the task; he was subsequently joined by 2 more ships and 200 men from [[Tortuga (Haiti)|Tortuga]] (now part of [[Haiti]]).{{sfn|Rogoziński|1995|p=228}}{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=756}}

Morgan's letter of marque gave him permission to attack Spanish ships at sea; there was no permission for attacks on land. Any plunder obtained from the attacks would be split between the government and the owners of the ships rented by the privateers. If the privateers stepped outside their official remit and raided a city, any resultant plunder would be retained by the privateers. Rogoziński observes that "attacks on cities were illegal piracy{{snd}}but extremely profitable",{{sfn|Rogoziński|1995|p=228}} although Zahedieh records that if Morgan was able to provide evidence of a potential Spanish attack, the attacks on cities were justifiable under the terms of his commission.{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}} Morgan's initial plan was to attack Havana, but, on discovering it was heavily defended, changed the target to [[Camagüey|Puerto del Príncipe]] (now Camagüey), a town {{convert|50|mi|km}} inland. Morgan and his men took the town, but the treasure obtained was less than hoped for.{{sfn|Breverton|2005|pp=36–38}}{{sfn|Gosse|2007|p=156}} According to [[Alexandre Exquemelin]], who sailed with Morgan, "It caused a general resentment and grief, to see such a small booty".{{sfn|Exquemelin|2010|pp=138–139}} When Morgan reported the taking of Puerto Principe to Modyford, he informed the governor that they had evidence that the Spanish were planning an attack on British territory: "we found seventy men had been pressed to go against Jamaica&nbsp;... and considerable forces were expected from Vera Cruz and Campeachy&nbsp;... and from Porto Bello and Cartagena to rendezvous at St Jago of Cuba [Santiago]".{{sfn|Pope|1978|p=145}}

[[File:Henry Morgan's attack on the Castillo de San Jeronimo, Porto Bello, 1669.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Morgan's attack on the Castillo de San Jerónimo, [[Portobelo, Colón|Porto Bello]]]]

After the action, one of the English privateers quarrelled with one of his French shipmates and stabbed him in the back, killing him. Before a riot between the French and English sailors could begin, Morgan arrested the English sailor, and promised the French sailors that the man would be hanged on his return to Port Royal. Morgan kept his word and the sailor was hanged.{{sfn|Talty|2007|p=90}}

===Porto Bello (1668)===
{{further|Henry Morgan's raid on Porto Bello}}
After dividing the spoils
of the conquest of Puerto del Príncipe, Morgan announced a plan to attack [[Portobelo, Colón|Porto Bello]] (now in modern-day Panama). The city was the third largest and strongest on the [[Spanish Main]] {{citation needed|date=September 2023}}, and on one of the main routes of trade between the Spanish territories and Spain. Because of the value of the goods passing through its port, Porto Bello was protected by two castles in the harbour and another in the town.{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=40}} The 200 French privateers, unhappy with the division of the treasure and the murder of their countryman, left Morgan's service and returned to Tortuga.{{sfn|Exquemelin|2010|p=139}} Morgan and his ships briefly landed at Port Royal before leaving for Porto Bello.{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=40}}

On 11 July 1668 Morgan anchored short of Porto Bello and transferred his men to 23 canoes, which they paddled to within {{convert|3|mi|km|spell=in}} of the target. They landed and approached the first castle from the landward side, where they arrived half an hour before dawn. They took the three castles and the town quickly.{{sfn|Pope|1978|p=147}}{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|pp=45–46}} The privateers lost 18 men, with a further 32 wounded; Zahedieh considers the action at Porto Bello displayed a "clever cunning and expert timing which marked&nbsp;... [Morgan's] brilliance as a military commander".{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}}

Exquemelin wrote that in order to take the third castle, Morgan ordered the construction of ladders wide enough for three men to climb abreast; when they were completed he "commanded all the religious men and women whom he had taken prisoners to fix them against the walls of the castle&nbsp;... these were forced, at the head of the companies to raise and apply them to the walls&nbsp;... Thus many of the religious men and nuns were killed".{{sfn|Exquemelin|2010|pp=144–145}} Terry Breverton, in his biography of Morgan, writes that when a translation of Exquemelin's book was published in England, Morgan sued for [[libel]] and won. The passage about the use of nuns and monks as a [[human shield]] was retracted from subsequent publications in England.{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=43}}

[[File:Pyle pirate prisoner.jpg|thumb|Morgan with a prisoner]]
Morgan and his men remained in Porto Bello for a month. He wrote to Don Agustín, the acting president of Panama, to demand a ransom for the city of 350,000 [[peso]]s.{{refn|The full name of the ''peso'' was the ''peso de ocho reales'', also known as piece of eight or the [[Spanish dollar]], the main currency used by the Spanish; English merchants and government used [[£sd|pounds, shillings and pence]]. In the late 17th century the peso was worth between five and six shillings.{{sfn|Little|2007|p=249}}|group=n}} As they stripped the city of its wealth it is probable that torture was used on the residents to uncover hidden caches of money and jewels. Zahedieh records that there were no first-hand reports from witnesses that confirmed Exquemelin's claim of widespread rape and debauchery.{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}} After an attempt by Don Agustín to recapture the city by force – his army of 800 soldiers was repelled by the privateers – he negotiated a ransom of 100,000 pesos.{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=47}} Following the ransom and the plunder of the city, Morgan returned to Port Royal, with between £70,000 and £100,000 of money and valuables; Zahedieh reports that the figures were more than the agricultural output of Jamaica, and nearly half Barbados's sugar exports. Each privateer received £120 – equivalent to five or six times the average annual earnings of a sailor of the time.{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}} Morgan received a five per cent share for his work;{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=1113}} Modyford received a ten per cent share, which was the price of Morgan's letter of marque.{{sfn|Barbour|1911|p=556}}{{sfn|Allen|1976|p=49}} As Morgan had overstepped the limits of his commission, Modyford reported back to London that he had "reproved" him for his actions although, Zahedieh observes, in Britain "Morgan was widely viewed as a national hero and neither he nor Modyford were rebuked for their actions".{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}}

===Lake Maracaibo and Gibraltar (1668–1669)===
{{further|Henry Morgan's raid on Lake Maracaibo}}
[[File:Lake Maracaibo map-en.svg|thumb|right|Maracaibo, Cabimas, Ciudad Ojeda and Gibraltar in modern day Venezuela]]
Morgan did not stay long in Port Royal and in October 1668 sailed with ten ships and 800 men for [[Île-à-Vache]], a small island he used as a rendezvous point.{{sfn|Pope|1978|p=163}} His plan was to attack the Spanish settlement of [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena de Indias]], the richest and most important city on the Spanish Main.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=1171}} In December he was joined by a former [[Royal Navy]] [[frigate]], ''Oxford'', which had been sent to Port Royal to aid in any defence of Jamaica. Modyford sent the vessel to Morgan, who made it his flagship.{{sfn|Breverton|2005|pp=50–51}} On 2 January 1669 Morgan called a council of war for all his captains, which took place on ''Oxford''. A spark in the ship's [[magazine (artillery)|powder magazine]] destroyed the ship and over 200 of its crew.{{refn|Some sources, including Breverton and Allen, state that there were only ten survivors from a crew of 350;{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=52}}{{sfn|Allen|1976|p=54}} Pope states that more than 250 were killed.{{sfn|Pope|1978|p=166}}|group=n}} Morgan and the captains seated on one side of the table were blown into the water and survived; the four captains on the other side of the table were all killed.{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=48}}{{sfn|Talty|2007|p=145}}

The loss of ''Oxford'' meant Morgan's flotilla was too small to attempt an attack on Cartagena. Instead he was persuaded by a French captain under his command to repeat the actions of the pirate [[François l'Olonnais]] two years previously: an attack on [[Maracaibo]] and [[Gibraltar, Venezuela|Gibraltar]], both on [[Lake Maracaibo]] in modern-day Venezuela.{{sfn|Pope|1978|pp=169–171}} The French captain knew the approaches to the lagoon, through a narrow and shallow channel. Since l'Olonnais and the French captain had visited Maracaibo, the Spanish had built the [[San Carlos de la Barra Fortress]], {{convert|20|mi|km}} outside the city, on the approach. Talty states that the fortress was placed in an excellent position to defend the town, but that the Spanish had undermanned it, leaving only nine men to load and fire the fortress's 11 guns.{{sfn|Talty|2007|p=149}} Under covering cannon fire from the privateer's flagship, ''Lilly'', Morgan and his men landed on the beach and stormed the fortification; they found it empty when they eventually breached its defences. A search soon found that the Spanish had left a slow-burning [[fuse (explosives)|fuse]] leading to the fort's [[powder keg]]s as a trap for the buccaneers, which Morgan extinguished.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=1346}} The fort's [[Touch hole#Spiking the guns|guns were spiked]] and then buried so they could not be used against the privateers when they returned from the rest of their mission.{{sfn|Talty|2007|p=150}}

[[File:Castillo San Carlos Zulia.jpg|thumb|left|[[San Carlos de la Barra Fortress]], which guarded the entrance to [[Maracaibo]]]]
Morgan arrived at Maracaibo to find the city largely deserted, its residents having been forewarned of his approach by the fortress's troops.{{sfn|Talty|2007|p=151}} He spent three weeks sacking the city. Privateers searched the surrounding jungle to find the escapees; they, and some of the remaining occupants, were tortured to find where money or treasure had been hidden.{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=54}} Satisfied he had stolen all he could, he sailed south across Lake Maracaibo, to Gibraltar. The town's occupants refused to surrender, and the fort fired enough of a barrage to ensure Morgan kept his distance. He anchored a short distance away and his men landed by canoe and assaulted the town from the landward approach. He met scant resistance, as many of the occupants had fled into the surrounding jungle. He spent five weeks in Gibraltar, and there was again evidence that torture was used to force residents to reveal hidden money and valuables.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=1410–1425}}

Four days after he left Maracaibo, Morgan returned. He was told that a Spanish defence squadron, the Armada de Barlovento, was waiting for him at the narrow passage between the Caribbean and Lake Maracaibo, where the San Carlos de la Barra Fortress was sited. The forces, under the command of Don Alonso del Campo y Espinosa, had 126 cannon with which to attack Morgan, and had re-armed San Carlos de la Barra Fortress.{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}}{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=1524–1534}} The Spaniards had orders to end piracy in the Caribbean, and negotiations between Morgan and Espinosa continued for a week. The final offer put by the Spanish commander was for Morgan to leave all their spoils and slaves and to return to Jamaica unmolested, but no agreement was reached that would allow Morgan and his men to pass the fleet with their spoils but without attack. Morgan put the Spaniards' offers to his men, who voted instead to fight their way out. As they were heavily outgunned, one privateer suggested that a [[fire ship]] aimed at Espinosa's flagship, ''Magdalen'' would work.{{sfn|Talty|2007|pp=162–163}}

To this end, a crew of 12 prepared a ship that had been seized in Gibraltar. They disguised vertical logs of wood with headwear, to make the Spaniards believe that the vessel was fully crewed. To make it look more heavily armed, additional portholes were cut in the hull and logs placed to resemble cannons. Barrels of powder were placed in the ship and grappling irons laced into the ships rigging, to catch the ropes and sails of ''Magdalen'' and ensure the vessels would become entangled.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=1573–1579, 1590, 1608–1613}}

[[File:Henry Morgan Destroys the Spanish Fleet at Lake Maracaibo.jpg|thumb|Morgan destroys the Spanish [[Armada de Barlovento]] at [[Lake Maracaibo]] 1669]]
On 1 May 1669 Morgan and his flotilla attacked the Spanish squadron. The fire ship plan worked, and ''Magdalen'' was shortly aflame; Espinosa abandoned his flagship and made his way to the fort, where he continued to direct events.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=1657}} The second-largest Spanish ship, ''Soledad'', tried to move away from the burning vessel, but a problem with the rigging meant they drifted aimlessly; privateers boarded the ship, fixed the rigging and claimed the craft as plunder. The third Spanish vessel was also sunk by the privateers.{{sfn|Talty|2007|pp=163–165}} Morgan still needed to pass the San Carlos de la Barra Fortress, but was still out-gunned by the stronghold, which had the ability to destroy the privateer fleet if it tried to pass. The privateer decided to negotiate, and threatened to sack and burn Maracaibo if he was not allowed to pass. Although Espinosa refused to negotiate, the citizens of Maracaibo entered into talks with Morgan, and agreed to pay him 20,000 pesos and 500 head of cattle if he agreed to leave the city intact. During the course of the negotiations with the Maracaibos, Morgan had undertaken salvage operations on ''Magdalen'', and secured 15,000 pesos from the wreck.{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=1652–1680}} Before taking any action, Morgan tallied his takings and divided it equally between his ships, to ensure that it was not all lost if one ship was sunk; it totalled 250,000 pesos, and a huge quantity of merchandise and a number of local slaves.{{sfn|Talty|2007|p=170}}

Morgan observed that Espinosa had set his cannon for a landward attack from the privateers&nbsp;– as they had done previously. The privateers faked a landing of their forces. The fort and its battlements were stripped of men as the Spanish prepared for a night assault from the English forces. That evening, with Spanish forces deployed to repel a landing, Morgan's fleet raised anchor without unfurling their sails; the fleet moved on the tide, raising sail only when it had moved level with the fortress, and Morgan and his men made their way back to Port Royal unscathed.{{sfn|Talty|2007|pp=171–172}}{{refn|For his failure in his action, Espinosa was arrested and sent back to Spain.{{sfn|Talty|2007|p=172}}|group=n}} Zahedieh considers the escape showed Morgan's "characteristic cunning and audacity".{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}}

During his absence from Port Royal, a pro-Spanish faction had gained the ear of [[King Charles II of England|King Charles II]], and English foreign policy had changed accordingly. Modyford admonished Morgan for his action, which had gone beyond his commission, and revoked the letters of marque; no official action was taken against any of the privateers.{{sfn|Gosse|2007|p=157}}{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=61}} Morgan invested a share of his [[prize money]] in an {{convert|836|acre|adj=on}} plantation&nbsp;– his second such investment.{{sfn|Rogoziński|1995|p=229}}

===Attack on Panama (1669–1671)===
{{further|Henry Morgan's Panama expedition}}
[[File:Captain Henry Morgan before Panama, 1671.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Morgan burning Panama City buildings, 1671 (c.&nbsp;1736 engraving used to illustrate [[Captain Charles Johnson]]'s ''[[A General History of the Pyrates|General History]]'')]]
In 1669 [[Mariana of Austria|Mariana, the Queen Regent of Spain]], ordered attacks on English shipping in the Caribbean. The first action took place in March 1670 when Spanish privateers attacked English trade ships.{{sfn|Barbour|1911|p=559}} In response Modyford commissioned Morgan "to do and perform all manner of exploits, which may tend to the preservation and quiet of this island".{{sfn|Paxman|2011|pp=19–20}} By December Morgan was sailing toward the Spanish Main with a fleet of over 30 English and French ships carrying a large number of privateers.{{sfn|Pope|1978|p=163}}{{refn|The size of Morgan's force differs between sources. Breverton states that Morgan commanded a fleet of 36 English and French ships carrying more than 1,800 privateers;{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=71}} Pope gives the figures of 36 ships and 1,846 men;{{sfn|Pope|1978|p=163}} Thomas writes that it was 37 ships with "2,000 fighting men, beside mariners and boys";{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=2110}} while Zahedieh and Cordingly separately put the figures at 38 ships with 2,000 men.{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}}{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=50}}|group=n}} Zahedieh observes that the army of privateers was the largest that had gathered in the Caribbean at the time, which was "a mark of Morgan's renown".{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}}

Morgan's first action was to take the connected islands of [[Isla de Providencia|Old Providence]] and [[Santa Catalina Island, Colombia|Santa Catalina]] in December 1670.{{sfn|Pope|1978|pp=216–219}} From there his fleet sailed to [[Chagres and Fort San Lorenzo|Chagres]], the port from which ships were loaded with goods to transport back to Spain. Morgan took the town and occupied [[Chagres and Fort San Lorenzo|Fort San Lorenzo]], which he garrisoned to protect his line of retreat. On 9 January 1671, with his remaining men, he ascended the [[Chagres River]] and headed for  [[Panamá Viejo|Panama City]], on the Pacific coast.{{sfn|Gosse|2007|p=158}} Much of the journey was on foot, through dense rainforests and swamps.{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=83}} The governor of Panama had been forewarned of a potential attack, and had sent Spanish troops to attack Morgan and his men along the route. The privateers transferred to canoes to complete part of the journey, but were still able to beat off the ambushes with ease.{{sfn|Allen|1976|pp=92–93}} After three days, with the river difficult to navigate in places, and with the jungle thinning out, Morgan landed his men and travelled overland across the remaining part of the [[Isthmus of Panama|isthmus]].{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=2453}}

The privateers, including Captain [[Robert Searle]], arrived at Old Panama City on 27 January 1671; they camped overnight before attacking the following day. They were opposed by approximately 1,200 Spanish infantry and 400 cavalry; most were inexperienced.{{sfn|Earle|2007|pp=201–204}}{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=51}} Morgan sent a 300-strong party of men down a ravine that led to the foot of a small hill on the Spanish right flank. As they disappeared from view, the Spanish front line thought the privateers were retreating, and the left wing broke rank and chased, followed by the remainder of the defending infantry. They were met with well-organised firing from Morgan's main force of troops. When the party came into view at the end of the ravine, they were charged by the Spanish cavalry, but organised fire destroyed the cavalry and the party attacked the flank of the main Spanish force.{{sfn|Talty|2007|pp=239–240}}{{sfn|Earle|2007|pp=206–207}} In an effort to disorganise Morgan's forces, the governor of Panama released two herds of oxen and bulls onto the battlefield; scared by the noise of the gunfire, they turned and stampeded over their keepers and some of the remaining Spanish troops.{{sfn|Pope|1978|p=241}} The battle was a rout: the Spanish lost between 400 and 500 men, against 15 privateers killed.{{sfn|Zahedieh|2004a}}{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=52}}

[[File:Captain Henry Morgan attacking Panama.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Morgan attacking Panama, 1671]]
Panama's governor had sworn to burn down the city if his troops lost to the privateers, and he had placed barrels of gunpowder around the largely wooden buildings. These were detonated by the captain of artillery after Morgan's victory; the resultant fires lasted until the following day.{{refn|The Spanish later built what is now [[Panama City]] six miles down the coast in a more easily defendable position.{{sfn|Patel|2013|p=34}}|group=n}} Only a few stone buildings remained standing afterwards.{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=52}} Much of Panama's wealth was destroyed in the conflagration, although some had been removed by ships, before the privateers arrived.{{sfn|Pope|1978|pp=242–243}} The privateers spent three weeks in Panama and plundered what they could from the ruins. Morgan's second-in-command, Captain [[Edward Collier (pirate)|Edward Collier]], supervised the torture of some of the city's residents; Morgan's fleet surgeon, Richard Browne, later wrote that at Panama, Morgan "was noble enough to the vanquished enemy".{{sfn|Thomas|2014|loc=2863}}{{sfn|Breverton|2005|p=91}}

The value of treasure Morgan collected during his expedition is disputed. Talty writes that the figures range from 140,000 to 400,000 pesos, and that owing to the large army Morgan assembled, the prize-per-man was relatively low, causing discontent.{{sfn|Talty|2007|p=251}} There were accusations, particularly in Exquemelin's memoirs, that Morgan left with the majority of the plunder.{{sfn|Cordingly|2006|p=52}}{{sfn|Gosse|2007|p=159}} He arrived back in Port Royal on 12 March to a positive welcome from the town's inhabitants. The following month he made his official report to the governing Council of Jamaica, and received their formal thanks and congratulations.{{sfn|Breverton|2005|pp=92–93}}