Editing Henry III of England (section)

== Minority (1216–1226) ==
=== Coronation ===
Henry was staying safely at [[Corfe Castle]] in Dorset with his mother when King John died.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davis|2013|p=30}}</ref> On his deathbed, John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of [[William Marshal]], one of the most famous knights in England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=14–15}}</ref> The loyalist leaders decided to crown Henry immediately to reinforce his claim to the throne.<ref name=Carpenter1990P13>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=13}}</ref>{{Efn|Henry's speedy coronation was intended to draw a clear distinction between the young king and his rival Louis, who had only been elected by the barons and was never crowned.<ref name=Carpenter1990P13/>}} William knighted the boy, and Cardinal [[Guala Bicchieri]], the [[papal legate]] to England, then oversaw his coronation at [[Gloucester Cathedral]] on 28 October 1216.<ref name="oxforddnb.com">{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=13}}; {{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|p=189}}; {{Harvnb|Ridgeway|2004}}</ref> 

In the absence of Archbishops [[Stephen Langton]] of [[Archbishop of Canterbury|Canterbury]] and [[Walter de Gray]] of [[Archbishop of York|York]], Henry was anointed by Bishops [[Sylvester of Worcester]] and [[Simon of Apulia|Simon of Exeter]], and crowned by [[Peter des Roches]].<ref name="oxforddnb.com"/> The royal crown had been either lost or sold during the civil war or possibly lost in [[The Wash#King John and his jewels|The Wash]], so instead the ceremony used a simple gold [[Corolla (chaplet)|corolla]] belonging to Queen Isabella.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davis|2013|p=31}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=188}}</ref> Henry later underwent a second coronation at [[Westminster Abbey]] on 17 May 1220.<ref name="Henry III - Westminster Abbey">{{Cite web |title=Henry III |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511213130/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/royals/coronations/henry-iii |website=Dean and Chapter of Westminster Abbey |access-date=16 February 2020 |url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/royals/coronations/henry-iii |archive-date=11 May 2012}}</ref>

The young king inherited a difficult situation, with over half of England occupied by the rebels and most of his father's continental possessions still in French hands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weiler|2012|p=1}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=1}}</ref> He had substantial support from Cardinal Guala, who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mayr-Harting|2011|pp=259–260}}</ref> Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy, starting with the coronation itself, where Henry gave [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] to the Papacy, recognising [[Pope Honorius III]] as his feudal lord.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mayr-Harting|2011|p=260}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=13}}</ref> Honorius declared that Henry was his [[vassal]] and [[Ward (law)|ward]], and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom.<ref name=Carpenter1990P13/> As an additional measure, Henry took the cross, declaring himself a [[Crusades|crusader]] and so entitled to special protection from Rome.<ref name=Carpenter1990P13/>

Two senior nobles stood out as candidates to head Henry's regency government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=16}}</ref> The first was William Marshal, who, although elderly, was renowned for his personal loyalty and could help support the war with his own men and material.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=15–16}}</ref> The second was [[Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester]], one of the most powerful loyalist barons. William diplomatically waited until both Guala and Ranulf had requested him to take up the post before assuming power.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=16–17}}</ref>{{Efn|Initially William Marshal termed himself the King's [[justiciar]]. When [[Hubert de Burgh]], the existing justiciar, complained, William altered his title to the ''rector nostrer et rector nostri'', "our ruler and the ruler of our kingdom".<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=21–22}}</ref>}} William then appointed des Roches to be Henry's guardian, freeing himself up to lead the military effort.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=17}}</ref>

=== End of the Barons' War ===
[[File:BitvaLincoln1217ortho.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|The [[Battle of Lincoln (1217)|Second Battle of Lincoln]] in 1217, showing the death of [[Thomas, Count of Perche]] (left), by [[Matthew Paris]]<ref name="McGlynn 2013 128–129">{{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|pp=128–129}}</ref>]]

The war was not going well for the loyalists and the new regency government considered retreating to [[Ireland]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=19}}</ref> Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress. Despite Louis controlling [[Westminster Abbey]], he could not be crowned king because the [[Christianity in England|English Church]] and the Papacy backed Henry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=301}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=19–21}}</ref> John's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aurell|2003|p=30}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=19–21}}</ref> In a bid to take advantage of this, Henry encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of Magna Carta, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavourable to the Papacy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=21–22, 24–25}}</ref> The move was not successful and opposition to Henry's new government hardened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=25}}</ref>

In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=27}}</ref> In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis's French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry's war against the rebels was a religious crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=28–29}}</ref>{{Efn|The status of Henry's campaign was slightly ambiguous. Pope Innocent IV declared the rebels to be worse than Saracens, but they were not considered heretics; the crusader cross was to be worn on the chest, rather than on the more conventional shoulder; joining this crusade was not the equivalent of fighting in the east, or replace an existing vow. It provided a convenient excuse for many rebels to switch back to the King's side without suffering a loss of face.<ref>{{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|p=198}}; {{Harvnb|Tyerman|1996|pp=141–142}}</ref>}} This resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry's favour.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=27–28}}</ref> Louis returned at the end of April and reinvigorated his campaign, splitting his forces into two groups, sending one north to besiege [[Lincoln Castle]] and keeping one in the south to capture [[Dover Castle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=31, 36}}</ref> When he learnt that Louis had divided his army, William Marshal gambled on defeating the rebels in a single battle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=36}}</ref> William marched north and attacked [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]] on 20 May 1217; entering through a side gate, he [[Battle of Lincoln (1217)|took the city]] in a sequence of fierce street battles and sacked the buildings.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=36–40}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=302}}; {{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|p=216}}</ref> Large numbers of senior rebels were captured, and historian David Carpenter considers the battle to be "one of the most decisive in English history".<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=39–40}}</ref>{{Efn|The French rebel leader, Thomas the Count of Perche, was one of the few actual casualties among the rebel leadership, and died as the result of an accidental spear-thrust through the visor, and after the battle, his death was deeply regretted by both sides.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=302}}</ref>}}

[[Image:EustaceTheMonk.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|The [[Battle of Sandwich (1217)|Battle of Sandwich]] in 1217, showing the capture of the French flagship and the execution of [[Eustace the Monk]] (r) and the support of the English bishops (l), by Matthew Paris<ref name="McGlynn 2013 128–129"/>]]

In the aftermath of Lincoln, the loyalist campaign stalled and only recommenced in late June when the victors had arranged the ransoming of their prisoners.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=41}}</ref> Meanwhile, support for Louis's campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost.<ref name="Hallam 2001 173">{{Harvnb|Hallam|Everard|2001|p=173}}</ref>{{Efn|Even in France, Louis was increasingly perceived to be conducting an illegitimate war against a child king who had been popularly appointed by the local barons.<ref name="Hallam 2001 173"/>}} Louis negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which he would renounce his claim to the English throne; in return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of [[excommunication]] would be lifted and Henry's government would promise to enforce Magna Carta.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=41–42}}</ref> The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion.<ref name=Carpenter1990P42>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=42}}</ref> In the absence of a settlement, Louis remained in London with his remaining forces.<ref name=Carpenter1990P42/>

On 24 August 1217, a French fleet arrived off the coast of [[Sandwich, Kent|Sandwich]], bringing soldiers, [[siege engine]]s, and fresh supplies to Louis.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=43–44}}</ref> [[Hubert de Burgh]], Henry's [[justiciar]], set sail to intercept it, resulting in the [[Battle of Sandwich (1217)|Battle of Sandwich]].<ref name=Carpenter1990P44>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=44}}</ref> De Burgh's fleet scattered the French and captured their flagship, commanded by [[Eustace the Monk]], who was promptly executed.<ref name=Carpenter1990P44/> When the news reached Louis, he entered into renewed peace negotiations.<ref name=Carpenter1990P44/>

Henry and Louis, together with Henry's mother, Cardinal Guala and William Marshal, came to an agreement on the final [[Treaty of Lambeth]] on 12 and 13 September 1217.<ref name=Carpenter1990P44/> The treaty was similar to the first peace offer but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=44–45}}</ref> Louis accepted a gift of ~£6,700 to speed his departure from England, and promised to try to persuade King Philip to return Henry's lands in France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=44–46}}</ref>{{Efn|name=Money|Medieval England principally used silver pennies; larger sums of silver pennies were typically expressed in financial accounts as pounds (240 pennies) or marks (160 pennies). This article presents all contemporary sums in pounds. It is impossible to accurately estimate the modern equivalent value of 13th century money; for comparison, in the early part of the 13th century, £66 was close to the average annual income of a poorer baron; £6,666 in 1216 was almost 25 per cent of the Crown's revenue for the year; shortly after Henry's death, his son Edward I spent approximately £80,000 on his castle-building programme in [[North Wales]], an immense outlay for the time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=40}}; {{Harvnb|Pounds|1994|pp=147, 176}}; {{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|p=237}}</ref>}} Louis left England as agreed and joined the [[Albigensian Crusade]] in the south of France.<ref name="Hallam 2001 173"/>

=== Restoring royal authority ===
[[File:Jindra3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Matthew Paris's depiction of the second coronation of Henry in 1220]]

With the end of the civil war, Henry's government faced the task of rebuilding royal authority across large parts of the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=50–51}}</ref> By the end of 1217, many former rebels were routinely ignoring instructions and even Henry's loyalist supporters jealously maintained their independent control over royal castles while illegally constructed fortifications, called [[adulterine castle]]s, had sprung up across much of the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=1}}</ref> The network of county [[sheriff]]s had collapsed and with it the ability to raise taxes and collect royal revenues.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=70–71}}</ref> The powerful [[Prince Llywelyn]] posed a major threat in Wales and along the [[Welsh Marches]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=321}}; {{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|pp=189, 223}}</ref>

Despite his success in winning the war, William had far less favourable results when attempting to restore royal power following the peace.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=55–56, 108–109}}</ref> This was in part because he was unable to offer significant patronage, despite the expectations from the loyalist barons that they would be rewarded.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=18, 51}}</ref>{{Efn|The Crown had traditionally relied on gifts and bribes to encourage loyalty and obedience among the barons, but in the straightened, post-war circumstances the opportunities to dispense such patronage was limited. Part of the problem was that medieval law was clear that the guardians of a minor, such as Henry, could not permanently dispose of their ward's property or rights, which meant that the government was unable to legally give any of the King's lands or rights to a baron during the royal minority.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=51}}</ref>}} William attempted to enforce the traditional rights of the Crown to approve marriages and wardships, but with little success.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=78–79}}</ref> Nonetheless, he was able to reconstitute the royal bench of judges and reopen the royal [[exchequer]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=64–65, 95–98}}</ref> The government issued the [[Charter of the Forest]], which attempted to reform the governance of the [[royal forest]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=62}}</ref> The regency and Llywelyn came to an agreement on the [[Treaty of Worcester]] in 1218, but its generous terms–which saw Llywelyn effectively become Henry's justiciar across Wales–underlined the weakness of the English Crown.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=76–77}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|pp=322–323}}</ref>

[[File:BitvauBedfordu1224.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Bedford Castle]] and the execution of the garrison in 1224 (Matthew Paris)]]

Henry's mother was unable to establish a role for herself in the regency government and she returned to France in 1217, marrying [[Hugh X de Lusignan]], a powerful [[Poitou|Poitevin]] noble.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vincent|2007|pp=198–199}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=304}}</ref>{{Efn|Before marrying John, Henry's mother Isabella had been betrothed to Hugh's father, [[Hugh IX of Lusignan|Hugh IX de Lusignan]]; John's intervention to marry Isabella himself caused Hugh to revolt and ultimately led to the collapse of Angevin power in northern France. Hugh X and Isabella had nine children together.<ref>{{Harvnb|Vincent|2007|pp=171–173}}</ref>}} William Marshal fell ill and died in April 1219. The replacement government was formed around a grouping of three senior ministers: [[Pandulf Verraccio]], the replacement Papal legate; [[Peter des Roches]]; and [[Hubert de Burgh]], a former justiciar.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=128}}</ref> The three were appointed by a great council of the nobility at [[Oxford]], and their government came to depend on these councils for authority.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=128–129}}</ref> Hubert and des Roches were political rivals, with Hubert supported by a network of English barons, and des Roches backed by nobles from the royal territories in [[Poitou]] and [[Touraine]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=239, 261}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|pp=304–305}}</ref>{{Efn|Hubert's supporters presented themselves as the rightful local rulers of England, facing up to oppressive foreigners; the des Roches' argued that they were in fact the loyal followers of the King and that it was the treacherous English barons who had rebelled and sided with Prince Louis against first John, and then Henry, during the recent civil war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=305}}</ref>}} Hubert moved decisively against des Roches in 1221, accusing him of treason and removing him as the King's guardian; the Bishop left England for the crusades.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=239, 258}}</ref> Pandulf was recalled by Rome the same year, leaving Hubert as the dominant force in Henry's government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=254, 26. 289}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=304}}</ref>

Initially, the new government had little success, but in 1220, the fortunes of Henry's government began to improve.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=146, 157–161, 187}}</ref> The Pope allowed Henry to be crowned for a second time, using a new set of regalia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=187–188}}</ref> The fresh coronation was intended to affirm the authority of the King; Henry promised to restore the powers of the Crown, and the barons swore that they would give back the royal castles and pay their debts to the Crown, on the threat of excommunication.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=188–190}}</ref> Hubert, accompanied by Henry, moved into Wales to suppress Llywelyn in 1223, and in England his forces steadily reclaimed Henry's castles.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=312–313}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=305}}; {{Harvnb|Ridgeway|2004}}</ref> The effort against the remaining recalcitrant barons came to a head in 1224 with the siege of [[Bedford Castle]], which Henry and Hubert besieged for eight weeks; when it finally fell, almost the entire garrison was executed and the castle was [[slighted]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=363–366}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=306}}; {{Harvnb|Baker|Baker|Hassall|Simco|1979|pp=10–11}}</ref>

Meanwhile, Louis VIII of France allied himself with Hugh de Lusignan and invaded Poitou and Gascony.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hallam|Everard|2001|p=176}}; {{Harvnb|Weiler|2012|p=20}}</ref> Henry's army in Poitou was poorly supplied and lacked support from the Poitevin barons, many of whom felt abandoned during the years of Henry's minority; as a result, the province fell quickly.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=371–373}}</ref> It became clear that Gascony would also fall unless reinforcements were sent from England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=374–375}}</ref> In early 1225 a great council approved a tax of £40,000 to dispatch an army, which managed to retake Gascony.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=376, 378}}; {{Harvnb|Hallam|Everard|2001|pp=176–177}}</ref>{{Efn|name=Money}} In exchange for agreeing to support Henry, the barons demanded that he reissue [[Magna Carta]] as well as the ''[[Charter of the Forest]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=379}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=307}}</ref> This time the King declared that the charters were issued of his own "spontaneous and free will" and confirmed them with the royal seal, giving the new [[Magna Carta#The Great Charter 1225|Magna Carta]] and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 far more authority than their previous iterations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=383}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=307}}</ref> The barons assumed that the King would act in accordance with these definitive charters, as he would be subject to the law and his decisions moderated by the advice of the nobility.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=2–3, 383, 386}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=307}}</ref>