Editing Hate crime (section)

==Psychological effects==
Hate crimes can have significant and wide-ranging [[Psychology|psychological]] consequences, not only for their direct victims but for others of the group as well. Moreover, victims of hate crimes often experience a sense of victimization that goes beyond the initial crime, creating a heightened sense of vulnerability towards future victimization.<ref name="Iganski & Lagou, 2015">Iganski & Lagou, 2015</ref> In many ways, hate crime victimization can be reminder to victims of their marginalized status in society, and for immigrants or refugees, may also serve to make them relive the violence that drove them to seek refuge in another country.<ref name="Iganski & Lagou, 2015"/>  A 1999 U.S. study of lesbian and gay victims of violent hate crimes documented that they experienced higher levels of psychological distress, including symptoms of [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[anxiety]], than lesbian and gay victims of comparable crimes which were not motivated by antigay bias.<ref name="Herek et al. (1999)">{{cite journal |last1= Herek |first1=Gregory M. |last2= Gillis |first2= J. Roy |last3= Cogan |first3= Jeanine C. |year= 1999 |title= Psychological Sequelae of Hate-Crime Victimization Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults |journal= [[Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology]] |volume= 67 |pages= 945–51 |doi= 10.1037/0022-006X.67.6.945 |pmid=10596515 |issue=6}}</ref> A manual issued by the Attorney-General of the Province of [[Ontario]] in Canada lists the following consequences:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/english/crim/cpm/2005/HateCrimeDiscrimination.pdf |title=Crown Policy Manual |date=21 March 2005 |access-date=21 June 2009}}</ref>

; Impact on the individual victim: psychological and [[affection|affective]] disturbances; repercussions on the victim's identity and [[self-esteem]]; both reinforced by a specific hate crime's degree of violence, which is usually stronger than that of a common crime.
; Effect on the targeted group: generalized [[fear|terror]] in the group to which the victim belongs, inspiring feelings of vulnerability among its other members, who could be the next hate crime victims.
; Effect on other vulnerable groups: ominous effects on [[minority groups]] or on groups that identify themselves with the targeted group, especially when the referred hate is based on an [[ideology]] or a [[doctrine]] that preaches simultaneously against several groups.
; Effect on the community as a whole: divisions and factionalism arising in response to hate crimes are particularly damaging to [[multiculturalism|multicultural societies]].

Hate crime victims can also develop [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and [[psychological trauma]].<ref name="Cox et al. (2012)">{{cite journal |last1= Cox |first1=William T. L. |last2= Abramson |first2= Lyn Y. |last3= Devine |first3= Patricia G. |last4= Hollon |first4= Steven D. |year= 2012 |title= Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective |journal= [[Perspectives on Psychological Science]] |volume= 7 |issue= 5 |pages= 427–49 |doi= 10.1177/1745691612455204 |pmid=26168502|s2cid=1512121 }}</ref> They suffer from typical symptoms of trauma: lack of concentration, fear, unintentional rethinking of the incident and feeling vulnerable or unsafe. These symptoms may be severe enough to qualify as [[PTSD]]. In the United States, the Supreme Court has accepted the claim that hate crimes cause 'distinct emotional harm' to victims. People who have been victims of hate crimes avoid spaces where they feel unsafe which can make communities less functional when ties with police are strained by persistent group fears and feelings of insecurity.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/hate-crimes-0 | title=Hate Crimes | date=January 2012 }}</ref> In the United States, hate crime has been shown to reduce educational attainment among affected groups—particularly among black, non-Hispanic victims.<ref name="Petach and Rumbaugh(2024)">{{cite journal | last1=Petach | first1=Luke | last2= Rumbaugh | first2=Dustin|year=2024|title=Hate Crime and Human Capital|journal=[[Review of Black Political Economy]] |doi = 10.1177/00346446241230696}}</ref>

A review of European and American research indicates that terrorist bombings cause [[Islamophobia]] and hate crimes to flare up but, in calmer times, they subside again, although to a relatively high level. Terrorists' most persuasive message is that of fear; a primary and strong emotion, fear increases risk estimates and has distortive effects on the perception of ordinary Muslims. Widespread Islamophobic prejudice seems to contribute to anti-Muslim hate crimes, but indirectly; terrorist attacks and intensified Islamophobic prejudice serve as a window of opportunity for extremist groups and networks.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = When Is the Time to Hate? A Research Review on the Impact of Dramatic Events on Islamophobia and Islamophobic Hate Crimes in Europe|last = Borell|first = Klas|date = 2015|journal = Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations|doi = 10.1080/09596410.2015.1067063|volume=26|issue = 4|pages=409–21|s2cid = 146687317}}</ref>