Editing Hasidic Judaism (section)

==Hasidic philosophy==
{{Jewish mysticism}}
{{Main|Hasidic philosophy}}

===Distinctions===
{{Tone|date=December 2024|section}}
The lengthy history of Hasidism, the numerous schools of thought therein, and its definitive use of [[homiletic]] literature and sermons – comprising numerous references to earlier sources in the [[Torah]], Talmud, and exegesis as a means to grounding itself in tradition – to convey its ideas make the isolation of a common doctrine highly challenging to researchers. As noted by [[Joseph Dan]], "Every attempt to present such a body of ideas has failed". Even motifs presented by scholars in the past as unique Hasidic contributions were later revealed to have been common among both their predecessors and opponents, all the more so regarding many other traits that are widely extant – these play, Dan added, "a prominent role in modern non-Hasidic and anti-Hasidic writings as well".<ref name="Dan2">Joseph Dan, ''[https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Hasidism/Teachings_and_Literature Hasidism: Teachings and Literature]'', [[The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe]]</ref> The difficulty of separating the movement's philosophy from that of its main inspiration, Lurianic Kabbalah, and determining what was novel and what merely a recapitulation, also baffled historians. Some, like [[Louis Jacobs]], regarded the early masters as innovators who introduced "much that was new if only by emphasis";<ref>Louis Jacobs, ''Basic Ideas of Hasidism'', in: ''Hasidism'', [[Encyclopedia Judaica]], 2007. Volume 8, p. 408.</ref> others, primarily [[Mendel Piekarz]], argued to the contrary that but a little was not found in much earlier tracts, and the movement's originality lay in the manner it popularized these teachings to become the ideology of a well-organized sect.<ref>Mendel Piekarz, ''Ben ideʼologyah li-metsiʼut'', [[Bialik Institute]] (1994), {{OCLC|31267606}}. pp. 151–152; Dynner, ''Men of Silk'', p. 27.</ref>

Among the traits particularly associated with Hasidism is the importance of joy and happiness at worship and religious life. However, the sect undoubtedly stressed this aspect and still possesses a clear populist bent. Another example is the value placed on the simple, ordinary Jew in supposed contradiction with the favouring of elitist scholars beforehand; such ideas are common in ethical works far preceding Hasidism. The movement did for a few decades challenge the rabbinic establishment, which relied on the authority of [[Torah]] acumen, but affirmed the centrality of study very soon. Concurrently, the image of the [[Misnagdim]], a term coined for those opposed to Hasidism, as dreary intellectuals who lacked spiritual fervour and opposed mysticism, is likewise unfounded. Neither did Hasidism, often portrayed as promoting healthy sensuality, unanimously reject the asceticism and self-mortification associated primarily with its rivals. Joseph Dan ascribed all these perceptions to so-called "[[Neo-Hasidic]]" writers and thinkers, like [[Martin Buber]]. In their attempt to build new models of spirituality for modern Jews, they propagated a romantic, sentimental image of the movement. The "Neo-Hasidic" interpretation influenced even scholarly discourse to a great degree, but had a tenuous connection with reality.<ref name="Dan2"/>

A further complication is the divide between what researchers term "early Hasidism", which ended roughly in the 1810s, and established Hasidism since then onwards. While the former was a highly dynamic religious revival movement, the latter phase is characterized by consolidation into sects with hereditary leadership. The mystical teachings formulated during the first era were by no means repudiated, and many Hasidic masters remained consummate spiritualists and original thinkers; as noted by [[Benjamin Brown (scholar)|Benjamin Brown]], Buber's once commonly accepted view that the routinization constituted "decadence" was refuted by later studies, demonstrating that the movement remained very much innovative.<ref>See, for example, Benjamin Brown, [https://www.academia.edu/9612489/ Hasidism Without Romanticism: Mendel Piekarz's Path in the study of Hasidism]. pp. 455–456.</ref> Yet many aspects of early Hasidism were de-emphasized in favour of more conventional religious expressions, and its radical concepts were largely neutralized. Some Rebbes adopted a relatively rationalist bent, sidelining their explicit mystical, [[theurgical]] roles, and many others functioned almost solely as political leaders of large communities. As to their Hasidim, affiliation was less a matter of admiring a charismatic leader as in the early days, but rather birth into a family belonging to a specific "court".<ref>Assaf, ''Regal Way'', pp. 49–55, 63–67; Dynner, ''Men of Silk'', pp. 117–121.</ref>

===Immanence===
[[File:Besht11.jpg|thumb|right|Rebuilt synagogue of the [[Baal Shem Tov]].|300px]]
The most fundamental theme underlying all Hasidic theory is the [[immanence]] of God in the universe, often expressed in a phrase from [[Tikunei haZohar]], {{transliteration|arc|Leit atar panuy miné}} ([[Aramaic]]: "no site is devoid of Him"). This [[panentheistic]] concept was derived from Lurianic discourse, but greatly expanded in the Hasidic one. In the beginning, in order to [[Genesis creation narrative|create the world]], God contracted (''[[Tzimtzum]]'') his omnipresence, the ''[[Ein Sof]]'', leaving a Vacant Void ({{transliteration|he|Chalal panuy}}), bereft of obvious presence and therefore able to entertain free will, contradictions and other phenomena seemingly separate from God Himself. These would have been impossible within his original, perfect existence. Yet, the very reality of the world which was created in the Void is entirely dependent on its divine origin. Matter would have been null and void without the true, spiritual essence it possesses. Just the same, the infinite ''Ein Sof'' cannot manifest in the Vacant Void, and must limit itself in the guise of measurable corporeality that may be perceived.<ref name="Elior1">Rachel Elior, [http://pluto.huji.ac.il/~mselio/yesod-42-sci.pdf יש ואין - דפוסי יסוד במחשבה החסידית], in: ''Masuʼot : meḥḳarim be-sifrut ha-ḳabalah ube-maḥshevet Yiśraʼel'', [[Bialik Institute]] (1994), {{OCLC|221873939}}. pp. 53–54.</ref>

Thus, there is a dualism between the true aspect of everything and the physical side, false but ineluctable, with each evolving into the other: as God must compress and disguise himself, so must humans and matter in general ascend and reunite with the Omnipresence. [[Rachel Elior]] quoted [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], in his commentary ''[[Torah Or]]'' on Genesis 28:22, who wrote that "this is the purpose of Creation, from Infinity to Finitude, so it may be reversed from the state of Finite to that of Infinity". Kabbalah stressed the importance of this dialectic, but mainly (though not exclusively) evoked it in cosmic terms, referring for example to the manner in which God progressively diminished himself into the world through the various dimensions, or ''[[Sephirot]]''. Hasidism applied it also to the most mundane details of human existence. All Hasidic schools devoted a prominent place in their teaching, with differing accentuation, to the interchanging nature of ''Ein'', both infinite and imperceptible, becoming ''Yesh'', "Existent" – and vice versa. They used the concept as a prism to gauge the world, and the needs of the spirit in particular. Elior noted: "Reality lost its static nature and permanent value, now measured by a new standard, seeking to expose the Godly, boundless essence, manifest in its tangible, circumscribed opposite."<ref>Elior, p. 56.</ref>

One major derivative of this philosophy is the notion of ''[[devekut]]'', "communion". As God was everywhere, connection with him had to be pursued ceaselessly as well, in all times, places and occasions. Such an experience was in the reach of every person, who only had to negate his inferior impulses and grasp the truth of divine immanence, enabling him to unite with it and attain the state of perfect, selfless bliss. Hasidic masters, well versed in the teachings concerning communion, are supposed not only to gain it themselves, but to guide their flock to it. ''Devekut'' was not a strictly defined experience; many varieties were described, from the utmost ecstasy of the learned leaders to the common man's more humble yet no less significant emotion during prayer.

Closely linked with the former is ''Bitul ha-Yesh'', "Negation of the Existent", or of the "Corporeal". Hasidism teaches that while a superficial observance of the universe by the "eyes of the flesh" (''Einei ha-Basar'') purportedly reflects the reality of all things profane and worldly, a true devotee must transcend this illusory façade and realize that there is nothing but God. It is not only a matter of perception, but very practical, for it entails also abandoning material concerns and cleaving only to the true, spiritual ones, oblivious to the surrounding false distractions of life. The practitioner's success in detaching from his sense of person, and conceive himself as ''Ein'' (in the double meaning of 'naught' and 'infinite'), is regarded as the highest state of elation in Hasidism. The true divine essence of man – the soul – may then ascend and return to the upper realm, where it does not possess an existence independent from God. This ideal is termed ''Hitpashtut ha-Gashmi'yut'', "the expansion (or removal) of corporeality". It is the dialectic opposite of God's contraction into the world.<ref>Elior, pp. 60–61.</ref>

To be enlightened and capable of ''Bitul ha-Yesh'', pursuing the pure spiritual aims and defying the primitive impulses of the body, one must overcome his inferior "Bestial Soul", connected with the Eyes of the Flesh. He may be able to tap into his "Divine Soul" (''Nefesh Elohit''), which craves communion, by employing constant contemplation, ''Hitbonenut'', on the hidden Godly dimension of all that exists. Then he could understand his surroundings with the "Eyes of the Intellect". The ideal adherent was intended to develop equanimity, or ''Hishtavut'' in Hasidic parlance, toward all matters worldly, not ignoring them, but understanding their superficiality.

Hasidic masters exhorted their followers to "negate themselves", paying as little heed as they could for worldly concerns, and thus, to clear the way for this transformation. The struggle and doubt of being torn between the belief in God's immanence and the very real sensual experience of the indifferent world is a key theme in the movement's literature. Many tracts have been devoted to the subject, acknowledging that the "callous and rude" flesh hinders one from holding fast to the ideal, and these shortcomings are extremely hard to overcome even in the purely intellectual level, a fortiori in actual life.<ref>Elior, pp. 55, 62–-63.</ref>

Another implication of this dualism is the notion of "Worship through Corporeality", ''Avodah be-Gashmiyut''. As the ''Ein Sof'' metamorphosed into substance, so may it in turn be raised back to its higher state; likewise, since the machinations in the higher ''Sephirot'' exert their influence on this world, even the most simple action may, if performed correctly and with understanding, achieve the reverse effect. According to Lurianic doctrine, the netherworld was suffused with divine sparks, concealed within "husks", ''[[qlippoth]]''. The glints had to be recovered and elevated to their proper place in the cosmos. "Materiality itself could be embraced and consecrated", noted [[Glenn Dynner]], and Hasidism taught that by common acts like dancing or eating, performed with intention, the sparks could be extricated and set free. ''Avodah be-Gashmiyut'' had a clear, if not implicit, [[antinomian]] edge, possibly equating sacred rituals mandated by Judaism with everyday activities, granting them the same status in the believer's eyes and having him content to commit the latter at the expense of the former. While at some occasions the movement did appear to step at that direction – for example, in its early days, prayer and preparation for it consumed so much time that adherents were blamed of neglecting sufficient Torah study – Hasidic masters proved highly conservative. Unlike in other, more radical sects influenced by kabbalistic ideas, like the [[Sabbateans]], Worship through Corporeality was largely limited to the elite and carefully restrained. The common adherents were taught they may engage it only mildly, through small deeds like earning money to support their leaders.

The complementary opposite of corporeal worship, or the elation of the finite into infinite, is the concept of ''Hamshacha'', "drawing down" or "absorbing", and specifically, ''Hamshachat ha-Shefa'', "absorption of effluence". During spiritual ascension, one could siphon the power animating the higher dimensions down into the material world, where it would manifest as benevolent influence of all kinds. These included spiritual enlightenment, zest in worship and other high-minded aims, but also the more prosaic health and healing, deliverance from various troubles and simple economic prosperity. Thus, a very tangible and alluring motivation to become followers emerged. Both corporeal worship and absorption allowed the masses to access, with common actions, a religious experience once deemed esoteric.<ref>Dynner, ''Men of Silk'', pp. 32–33.</ref>

Yet another reflection of the ''Ein''-''Yesh'' dialectic is pronounced in the transformation of evil to goodness and the relations between these two poles and other contradicting elements – including various traits and emotions of the human psyche, like pride and humility, purity and profanity, et cetera. Hasidic thinkers argued that in order to redeem the sparks hidden, one had to associate not merely with the corporeal, but with sin and evil. One example is the elevation of impure thoughts during prayer, transforming them to noble ones rather than repressing them, advocated mainly in the early days of the sect; or "breaking" one's own character by directly confronting profane inclinations. This aspect, once more, had sharp antinomian implications and was used by the Sabbateans to justify excessive sinning. It was mostly toned down in late Hasidism, and even before that, leaders were careful to stress that it was not exercised in the physical sense, but in the contemplative, spiritual one. This kabbalistic notion, too, was not unique to the movement and appeared frequently among other Jewish groups.<ref>The entire section is based on: Elior, ''יש ואין''; Dan, ''Teachings'', YIVO; ''Hasidism'', Judaica, pp. 410–412.</ref>

===Righteous One===
[[File:Isroel Hopsztajn.jpg|thumb|Rebbe [[Yisroel Hopsztajn]], a great promulgator of Hasidism in Poland, blessing acolytes {{Circa|1800}}. Hasidism gave the elite [[Tzadik]] a social mystical role.|300px]]
While its mystical and ethical teachings are not easily sharply distinguished from those of other Jewish currents, the defining doctrine of Hasidism is that of the saintly leader, serving both as an ideal inspiration and an institutional figure around whom followers are organized. In the movement's sacral literature, this person is referred to as the ''[[Tzadik|Tzaddiq]]'', the Righteous One – often also known by the general honorific ''Admor'' (acronym of Hebrew for "our master, teacher and Rabbi"), granted to rabbis in general, or colloquially as ''Rebbe''. The idea that, in every generation, there are righteous persons through whom the divine effluence is drawn to the material world is rooted in the kabbalistic thought, which also claims that one of them is supreme, the reincarnation of [[Moses]]. Hasidism elaborated the notion of the ''Tzaddiq'' into the basis of its entire system – so much that the very term gained an independent meaning within it, apart from the [[Tzadik|original which denoted God-fearing, highly observant]] people.<ref name="Assaf1">David Assaf, ''The Regal Way: The Life and Times of Rabbi Israel of Ruzhin'', Stanford University Press (2002). pp. 101–104.</ref>

When the sect began to attract following and expanded from a small circle of learned disciples to a mass movement, it became evident that its complex philosophy could be imparted only partially to the new rank and file. As even intellectuals struggled with the sublime dialectics of infinity and corporeality, there was little hope to have the common folk truly internalize these, not as mere abstractions to pay lip service to.<ref>Elior, p. 65.</ref> Ideologues exhorted them to have faith, but the true answer, which marked their rise as a distinct sect, was the concept of the ''Tzaddiq''. A Hasidic master was to serve as a living embodiment of the recondite teachings. He was able to transcend matter, gain spiritual communion, Worship through Corporeality and fulfill all the theoretical ideals. As the vast majority of his flock could not do so themselves, they were to cleave to him instead, acquiring at least some semblance of those vicariously. His commanding and often – especially in the early generations – charismatic presence was to reassure the faithful and demonstrate the truth in Hasidic philosophy by countering doubts and despair. But more than spiritual welfare was concerned: Since it was believed he could ascend to the higher realms, the leader was able to harvest effluence and bring it down upon his adherents, providing them with very material benefits. "The crystallization of that [[theurgical]] phase", noted [[Glenn Dynner]], "marked Hasidism's evolution into a full-fledged social movement."

In Hasidic discourse, the willingness of the leader to sacrifice the ecstasy and fulfillment of unity in God was deemed a heavy sacrifice undertaken for the benefit of the congregation. His followers were to sustain and especially to obey him, as he possessed superior knowledge and insight gained through communion. The "descent of the Righteous" (''Yeridat ha-Tzaddiq'') into the matters of the world was depicted as identical with the need to save the sinners and redeem the sparks concealed in the most lowly places. Such a link between his functions as communal leader and spiritual guide legitimized the political power he wielded. It also prevented a retreat of Hasidic masters into hermitism and passivity, as many mystics before them did. Their worldly authority was perceived as part of their long-term mission to elevate the corporeal world back into divine infinity.<ref name="AA">Elior, pp. 66–68; Dynner, pp. 20–21.</ref> To a certain extent, the Saint even fulfilled for his congregation, and for it alone, a limited [[Messiah in Judaism|Messianic]] capacity in his lifetime. After the Sabbatean debacle, this moderate approach provided a safe outlet for the eschatological urges. At least two leaders radicalized in this sphere and caused severe controversy: [[Nachman of Breslov]], who declared himself the only true ''Tzaddiq'', and [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], whom many of his followers believed to be the Messiah. The ''Rebbe''s were subject to intense hagiography, even subtly compared with Biblical figures by employing prefiguration.<ref name="Dan2"/> It was argued that since followers could not "negate themselves" sufficiently to transcend matter, they should instead "negate themselves" in submission to the Saint (''Hitbatlut la-Tzaddiq''), thus bonding with him and enabling themselves to access what he achieved in terms of spirituality. The Righteous served as a mystical bridge, drawing down effluence and elevating the prayers and petitions of his admirers.<ref name="AA"/>

The Saintly forged a well-defined relationship with the masses: they provided the latter with inspiration, were consulted in all matters, and were expected to intercede on behalf of their adherents with God and ensure they gained financial prosperity, health and male offspring. The pattern still characterizes Hasidic sects, though prolonged routinization in many turned the ''Rebbes'' into de facto political leaders of strong, institutionalized communities. The role of a Saint was obtained by charisma, erudition and appeal in the early days of Hasidism. But by the dawn of the 19th century, the Righteous began to claim legitimacy by descent to the masters of the past, arguing that since they linked matter with infinity, their abilities had to be associated with their own corporeal body. Therefore, it was accepted "there can be no ''Tzaddiq'' but the son of a ''Tzaddiq''". Virtually all modern sects maintain this hereditary principle. For example, the ''Rebbe''s' families maintain endogamy and marry almost solely with scions of other dynasties.<ref>Assaf, ''Regal Way'', pp. 108–110.</ref>

===Schools of thought===
Some Hasidic "courts", and not a few individual prominent masters, developed distinct philosophies with particular accentuation of various themes in the movement's general teachings. Several Hasidic schools had lasting influence over many dynasties, while others died with their proponents. In the doctrinal sphere, the dynasties may be divided along many lines. Some are characterized by Rebbes who are predominantly Torah scholars and [[posek|poskim]] "deciders", deriving their authority much like ordinary non-Hasidic rabbis do. Such "courts" emphasize strict observance and study, and are among the most meticulous in the Orthodox world in practice. Prominent examples are the House of [[Sanz]] and its scions, such as [[Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)|Satmar]] and [[Belz (Hasidic dynasty)|Belz]]. Other sects, like [[Vizhnitz (Hasidic dynasty)|Vizhnitz]], espouse a charismatic-populist line centered on the admiration of the masses for the tzaddik, his effervescent style of prayer and conduct and his purported miracle-working capabilities. Fewer still retain a high proportion of the mystical-spiritualist themes of early Hasidism, encouraging members to study much kabbalistic literature and (carefully) engage in the field. The various [[Ziditchover]] dynasties mainly adhere to this philosophy.<ref name="RAD"/> Others still focus on contemplation and achieving inner perfection. No dynasty is wholly devoted to a single approach to the above; all offer some combination with differing emphasis on each.

In 1812, a schism occurred between the [[Yaakov Yitzchak of Lublin]], "the Seer," and his prime disciple, [[Yaakov Yitzchak of Peshischa]], the "Holy Jew", due to both personal and doctrinal disagreements. The Seer adopted a populist approach, centered on the tzaddik's [[theurgical]] functions to draw the masses. He was famous for his lavish, enthusiastic conduct during prayer and worship, and highly charismatic demeanour. He stressed that as tzaddik, his mission was to influence the common folk by absorbing the Divine Light and satisfying their material needs, thus converting them to his cause and elating them. The Holy Jew pursued a more introspective course, maintaining that the Rebbe's duty was to serve as a spiritual mentor for a more elitist group, helping them to achieve a senseless state of contemplation, aiming to restore man to his oneness with God which [[Adam]] supposedly lost when he ate the fruit of the [[tree of the knowledge of good and evil]]. The Holy Jew and his successors did neither repudiate miracleworking nor eschew dramatic conduct, but they were much more restrained. The Przysucha School became dominant in [[Congress Poland]], while populist Hasidism resembling the Lublin ethos often prevailed in [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]].<ref>Dynner, pp. 29–31.</ref> One extreme and renowned philosopher who emerged from the Przysucha School was [[Menachem Mendel of Kotzk]]. Adopting an elitist, hard-line attitude, he openly denounced the folksy nature of other tzaddikim and rejected financial support. Gathering a small group of devout scholars who sought spiritual perfection, whom he often berated and mocked, he always stressed the importance of somberness and totality, stating it was better to be fully wicked than only somewhat good.

[[Chabad]], limited to its namesake dynasty, but prominent, was founded by [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]] and was elaborated by his successors until the late 20th century. The movement retained many of the attributes of early Hasidism, before a clear divide between tzaddik and ordinary followers was cemented. Chabad Rebbes insisted their adherents acquire proficiency in the sect's lore, and not relegate most responsibility to the leaders. The sect emphasizes the importance of intellectually grasping the dynamics of the hidden divine aspect and how they affect the human psyche; the acronym ''Chabad'' is for the three penultimate [[sefirot]], associated with the cerebral side of consciousness.

Another famous philosophy is that formulated by [[Nachman of Breslov]] and adhered to by Breslov Hasidim. In contrast to most of his peers, who believed that God must be worshiped through the enjoyment of the physical world, Nachman portrayed the corporeal world in grim colours, as a place devoid of God's immediate presence from which the soul yearns to liberate itself. He mocked the attempts to perceive the nature of infinite-finite dialectics and how God still occupies the Vacant Void albeit not, stating these were paradoxical, beyond human understanding. Only naive faith in their reality would do. Mortals constantly struggled to overcome their profane instincts and had to free themselves from their limited intellects to see the world as it truly is.

[[Tzvi Hirsh of Zidichov]], a major Galician tzaddik, was a disciple of the Seer of Lublin, but combined his populist inclination with a strict observance even among his most common followers, and great pluralism in matters of mysticism, as those were eventually emanating from each person's unique soul.

[[Mordechai Yosef Leiner]] of [[Izbica]] promulgated a radical understanding of free will, which he considered illusory and also derived directly from God. He argued that evil thoughts did not derive from the animalistic soul after attaining a sufficient spiritual level. Sudden urges to transgress revealed Law were God-inspired and may be pursued. This volatile, potentially antinomian doctrine of "Transgression for the Sake of Heaven" is also found in other Hasidic writings, especially from the early period. His successors de-emphasized it in their commentaries. Leiner's disciple [[Zadok HaKohen]] of Lublin also developed a complex philosophic system which presented a dialectic nature in history, arguing that significant progress had to be preceded by crisis and calamity.