Editing Harry Kroto (section)

==Education and academic career==
===Education===
Kroto was educated at Bolton School and went to the University of Sheffield in 1958, where he obtained a first-class honours BSc degree in Chemistry (1961) and a PhD in Molecular Spectroscopy (1964).<ref name="Nobel Autobiography" /> During his time at Sheffield he also was the art editor of ''Arrows'' – the university student magazine, played tennis for the university team (reaching the UAU finals twice) and was President of the Student Athletics Council (1963–64). Among other things such as making the first [[phosphaalkenes]] (compounds with carbon phosphorus double bonds), his doctoral studies included unpublished research on [[carbon suboxide]], O=C=C=C=O, and this led to a general interest in [[molecule]]s containing chains of carbon atoms with numerous multiple bonds. He started his work with an interest in [[organic chemistry]], but when he learned about [[spectroscopy]] it inclined him towards [[quantum chemistry]]; he later developed an interest in [[astrochemistry]].<ref name="Nobel Autobiography" />

After obtaining his PhD, Kroto spent two-years as a postdoctoral fellow in the molecular spectroscopy group of [[Gerhard Herzberg]] at the [[National Research Council (Canada)|National Research Council]] in Ottawa, Canada, and the subsequent year (1966–1967) at [[Bell Laboratories]] in New Jersey carrying out Raman studies of liquid phase interactions and worked on quantum chemistry.<ref name="Nobel Autobiography" />

===Research at the University of Sussex===
In 1967, Kroto began teaching and research at the [[University of Sussex]] in England.  During his time at Sussex from 1967 to 1985, he carried out research mainly focused on the spectroscopic studies of new and novel unstable and semi-stable species.  This work resulted in the birth of the various fields of new chemistry involving carbon multiply bonded to second and third row elements e.g. S, Se and P. A particularly important breakthrough (with Sussex colleague John Nixon) was the creation of several new phosphorus species detected by microwave spectroscopy.  This work resulted in the birth of the field(s) of phosphaalkene and phosphaalkyne chemistry.  These species contain carbon double and triple bonded to phosphorus (C=P and C≡P) such as [[cyanophosphaethyne]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=The detection of unstable molecules by microwave spectroscopy: phospha-alkenes|journal=Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications|year=1976| doi = 10.1039/C39760000513|issue=13|pages=513–515|last1=Simmons|first1=Nigel P. C.|last2=Nixon|first2=John F.|last3=Kroto|first3=Harold W.|last4=Hopkinson|first4=Michael J.}}</ref>

In 1975, he became a full professor of Chemistry. This coincided with laboratory microwave measurements with Sussex colleague David Walton on long linear carbon chain molecules, leading to radio astronomy observations with Canadian astronomers surprisingly revealing that these unusual carbonaceous species exist in relatively large abundances in interstellar space as well as the outer atmospheres of certain stars – the carbon-rich red giants.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Detection of the Heavy Interstellar Molecule Cyanodiacetylene|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|year=1976|bibcode=1976ApJ...205L.173A |doi=10.1086/182117|volume=205|pages=L173|last1=Avery|first1=L. W.|last2=Broten|first2=N. W.|last3=MacLeod|first3=J. M.|last4=Oka|first4=T.|last5=Kroto|first5=H. W.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Harold Kroto: University of Sussex|url=http://www.sussex.ac.uk/profiles/1523|publisher=University of Sussex|access-date=2 May 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309212213/http://www.sussex.ac.uk/profiles/1523|archive-date=9 March 2016}}</ref>

===Discovery of buckminsterfullerene===
[[File:C60 Image for Cover cropped 3.png|thumb|Buckminsterfullerene, C60]]
In 1985, on the basis of the Sussex studies and the stellar discoveries, laboratory experiments (with co-workers [[James R. Heath]], Sean C. O'Brien, Yuan Liu, [[Robert Curl]] and [[Richard Smalley]] at Rice University) which simulated the chemical reactions in the atmospheres of the red giant stars demonstrated that stable [[Buckminsterfullerene|C<sub>60</sub> molecules]] could form spontaneously from a condensing carbon vapour.  The co-investigators directed [[laser]]s at graphite and examined the results.<ref name="C60 publication">{{cite journal|last1=Kroto|first1=H. W.|last2=Heath|first2=J. R.|last3=O'Brien|first3=S. C.|last4=Curl|first4=R. F.|last5=Smalley|first5=R. E.|title=C60: Buckminsterfullerene|journal=Nature|date=14 November 1985|volume=318|issue=6042|pages=162–163|doi=10.1038/318162a0|bibcode=1985Natur.318..162K|s2cid=4314237}}</ref><ref name="ChemLandmark"/><ref name="CHF">{{cite web|title=Richard E. Smalley, Robert F. Curl, Jr., and Harold W. Kroto|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/richard-smalley-robert-curl-harold-kroto|website=Science History Institute |access-date=21 March 2018|date=June 2016}}</ref> The C<sub>60</sub> molecule is a molecule with the same symmetry pattern as a football, consisting of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons of carbon atoms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/77|title=Architects of the Microcosmos|first=Chris|last=Dean|website=Vega Science Trust}}</ref> Kroto named the molecule buckminsterfullerene, after [[Buckminster Fuller]] who had conceived of the [[geodesic dome]]s, as the dome concept had provided a clue to the likely structure of the new species.<ref name="C60 celestial sphere">{{Cite web|url=http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/65|title=C60, the Celestial Sphere that Fell to Earth|first=Chris|last=Dean|website=Vega Science Trust}}</ref>

In 1985, the C<sub>60</sub> discovery caused Kroto to shift the focus of his research from spectroscopy in order to probe the consequences of the C<sub>60</sub> structural concept (and prove it correct) and to exploit the implications for chemistry and material science.<ref name=DavidIbberson1991>{{cite journal|last1=David|first1=William I. F.|author-link1=William I. F. David|last2=Ibberson|first2=Richard M.|last3=Matthewman|first3=Judy C.|last4=Prassides|first4=Kosmas|last5=Dennis|first5=T. John S.|last6=Hare|first6=Jonathan P.|last7=Kroto|first7=Harold W.|author-link7=Harry Kroto|last8=Taylor|first8=Roger|last9=Walton|first9=David R. M.|title=Crystal structure and bonding of ordered C60|journal=Nature|volume=353|issue=6340|year=1991|pages=147–149|doi=10.1038/353147a0|bibcode=1991Natur.353..147D|s2cid=4345630}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sir Harold Kroto - Biographical|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1996/kroto-bio.html|publisher=Nobel Prize|access-date=3 May 2016}}</ref>

This research is significant for the discovery of a new [[Allotropy|allotrope]] of carbon known as a [[fullerene]].  Other [[allotropes of carbon]] include [[graphite]], diamond and [[graphene]]. Kroto's 1985 paper entitled "C60:  Buckminsterfullerene", published with colleagues J. R. Heath, S. C. O'Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015.<ref name="Award"/><ref name="Breakthrough"/> The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a [[National Historic Chemical Landmarks|National Historic Chemical Landmark]] by the [[American Chemical Society]] at the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University in Houston, Texas.<ref name="ChemLandmark"/>

===Research at Florida State University===
In 2004, Kroto left the University of Sussex to take up a new position as Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at [[Florida State University]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Sir Harold Kroto FSU Profile|url=http://www.fsu.edu/profiles/kroto/|access-date=29 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330064245/http://fsu.edu/profiles/kroto/|archive-date=30 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> At FSU he carried out fundamental research on: Carbon vapour with Professor Alan Marshall;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/tiny-buckyball-grown-around-metal-atom/5071.article|title=Tiny buckyball grown around metal atom|first=Jon|last=Cartwright|date=2012-05-30|website=Chemistry World}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/buckyballs-grow-by-gobbling-up-carbon/5062.article|title=Buckyballs grow by gobbling up carbon|first=Hayley|last=Bennett|date=2012-05-28|website=Chemistry World}}</ref> Open framework condensed phase systems with strategically important electrical and magnetic behaviour with Professors Naresh Dalal (FSU) and Tony Cheetham (Cambridge);<ref>{{cite journal|title=Multiferroic Behavior Associated with an Order−Disorder Hydrogen Bonding Transition in Metal−Organic Frameworks (MOFs) with the Perovskite ABX3 Architecture|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|year=2009|doi=10.1021/ja904156s|volume=131|issue=38|pages=13625–13627|pmid=19725496 | last1 = Jain | first1 = P | last2 = Ramachandran | first2 = V | last3 = Clark | first3 = RJ | last4 = Zhou | first4 = HD | last5 = Toby | first5 = BH | last6 = Dalal | first6 = NS | last7 = Kroto | first7 = HW | last8 = Cheetham | first8 = AK}}</ref> and the mechanism of formation and properties of nano-structured systems.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Closed Network Growth of Fullerenes|journal=Nature Communications|year=2012|volume=3|issue=5|doi=10.1038/ncomms1853|pmid=22617295|page=855|bibcode=2012NatCo...3..855D|last1=Dunk|first1=Paul W.|last2=Kaiser|first2=Nathan K.|last3=Hendrickson|first3=Christopher L.|last4=Quinn|first4=John P.|last5=Ewels|first5=Christopher P.|last6=Nakanishi|first6=Yusuke|last7=Sasaki|first7=Yuki|last8=Shinohara|first8=Hisanori|last9=Marshall|first9=Alan G.|last10=Kroto|first10=Harold W.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/boron-vapour-trail-leads-to-heterofullerenes/5749.article|title=Boron vapour trail leads to heterofullerenes|first=Caryl|last=Richards|date=2012-12-18|website=Chemistry World}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Bottom-up formation of endohedral mono-metallofullerenes is directed by charge transfer|journal=Nature Communications|volume=5|page=5844|doi=10.1038/ncomms6844|pmid=25524825 | last1 = Dunk | first1 = PW | last2 = Mulet-Gas | first2 = M | last3 = Nakanishi | first3 = Y | last4 = Kaiser | first4 = NK | last5 = Rodríguez-Fortea | first5 = A | last6 = Shinohara | first6 = H | last7 = Poblet | first7 = JM | last8 = Marshall | first8 = AG | last9 = Kroto | first9 = HW|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.5844D|date=2014-12-19| doi-access = free }}</ref> In addition, he participated in research initiatives at FSU that probed the astrochemistry of fullerenes, metallofullerenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in stellar/circumstellar space, as well as their relevance to stardust.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Metallofullerene and Fullerene Formation from Condensing Carbon Gas under Conditions of Stellar Outflows and Implication to Stardust|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2013|doi=10.1073/pnas.1315928110|volume=110|issue=45|pages=18081–18086|pmid=24145444|pmc=3831496 | last1 = Dunk | first1 = PW | last2 = Adjizian | first2 = JJ | last3 = Kaiser | first3 = NK | last4 = Quinn | first4 = JP | last5 = Blakney | first5 = GT | last6 = Ewels | first6 = CP | last7 = Marshall | first7 = AG | last8 = Kroto | first8 = HW|bibcode=2013PNAS..11018081D|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sodium aids metallofullerene formation in stellar outflows |url=http://blog.pnas.org/?p=1298|website=PNAS|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Supernova Chemistry|url=http://www.pnas.org/site/misc/paulDunkPodcast.mp3|website=PNAS Science Session Podcast|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref>

===Educational outreach and public service===

In 1995, he jointly set up the [[Vega Science Trust]], a UK educational charity that created high quality science films including lectures and interviews with Nobel Laureates, discussion programmes, careers and teaching resources for TV and Internet Broadcast. Vega produced over 280 programmes, that streamed for free from the Vega website which acted as a TV science channel. The trust closed in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vega Science Trust to Close|url=http://www.vega.org.uk/news/details/8|publisher=The Vega Science Trust|access-date=2 May 2016}}</ref>
[[File:Sir Harold Kroto at CSICON 2011.JPG|thumb|upright|Sir Harold Kroto at [[CSICon]] 2011]]

In 2009, Kroto spearheaded the development of a second science education initiative, [[Geoset]].<ref name="GEOSET home">{{Cite web|url=https://geoset.fsu.edu/|title=GEOSET Studio|website=geoset.fsu.edu}}</ref> Short for the Global Educational Outreach for Science, Engineering and Technology, GEOSET is an ever-growing online cache of recorded teaching modules that are freely downloadable to educators and the public. The program aims to increase knowledge of the sciences by creating a global repository of educational videos and presentations from leading universities and institutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.geoset.fsu.edu/Productions/Opening-Minds-2013|title=5 days of opening minds (2013)}}</ref>

In 2003, prior to the Blair/Bush [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]] on the pretext that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction, Kroto initiated and organised the publication of a letter to be signed by a dozen UK Nobel Laureates and published in ''The Times''.  It was composed by his friend the Nobel Peace Prize Laureate the late [[Joseph Rotblat|Sir Joseph Rotblat]] and published in ''The Times'' on 15 February 2003.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nobel laureates against the war|url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/nobel-laureates-against-the-war-6cxlwdpqzs3|newspaper=[[The Times]]|access-date=8 September 2014|date=2003-02-15|last1=Others|first1=From Professor Sir Joseph Rotblat}}</ref>

He wrote a set of articles, mostly opinion pieces, from 2002 to 2003 for the [[Times Higher Education Supplement]], a weekly UK publication.<ref>{{cite web|title=Harry Kroto|work=Times Higher Education|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/news/harry-kroto/177494.article|access-date=6 September 2014|date=2003-06-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Abstracts of Kroto's Times Higher Education Articles|url=http://www.faqs.org/abstracts/author/times-higher-education-supplement-2003/harry-kroto/|access-date=6 September 2014}}</ref>

From 2002 to 2004, Kroto served as president of the [[Royal Society of Chemistry]].<ref>[http://www.rsc.org/AboutUs/History/rscpresidents/1980toPD.asp RSC Presidents 1980 to Present Day]. Rsc.org. Retrieved 25 December 2011.</ref> In 2004, he was appointed to the [[Francis Eppes]] Professorship in the chemistry department at Florida State University, carrying out research in [[nanoscience]] and [[nanotechnology]].<ref>{{cite web|title=FSU Profile|url=http://www.fsu.edu/profiles/kroto/|access-date=29 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330064245/http://fsu.edu/profiles/kroto/|archive-date=30 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

He spoke at [[Auburn University]] on 29 April 2010, and at the [[James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy]] at [[Rice University]] with [[Robert Curl]] on 13 October 2010.<ref>[http://bakerinstitute.org/events/civic-scientist-lecture-sir-harry-w.-kroto-ph.d.-and-robert-f.-curl-jr.-ph.d James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy Rice University | Events | Civic Scientist Lecture – Robert F. Curl Jr., Ph.D., and Sir Harry W. Kroto, Ph.D] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014021011/http://bakerinstitute.org/events/civic-scientist-lecture-sir-harry-w.-kroto-ph.d.-and-robert-f.-curl-jr.-ph.d |date=14 October 2010 }}. Bakerinstitute.org (13 October 2010). Retrieved 25 December 2011.</ref>

In October 2010 Kroto participated in the [[USA Science and Engineering Festival]]'s Lunch with a Laureate program where middle and high school students had the opportunity to engage in an informal conversation with a Nobel Prize–winning scientist.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usasciencefestival.org/2010festival/schoolprograms/lunchwithalaureate |title=Lunch with a Laureate |access-date=2010-12-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421005023/http://www.usasciencefestival.org/2010festival/schoolprograms/lunchwithalaureate |archive-date=21 April 2010}}. usasciencefestival.org</ref>

He spoke at [[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala|Mahatma Gandhi University]], at [[Kottayam]], in [[Kerala]], India in January 2011, where he was an 'Erudite' special invited lecturer of the Government of Kerala, from 5 to 11 January 2011.<ref>[http://mgu.ac.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=555&Itemid=719 Erudite]. Mgu.ac.in. Retrieved 25 December 2011.</ref>

Kroto spoke at [[CSICon]] 2011,<ref>{{cite web|title=SCIcon 2011 Speakers |url=http://csiconference.org/speakers#harold_kroto |access-date=12 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414212052/http://csiconference.org/speakers |archive-date=14 April 2012 }}</ref> a convention "dedicated to scientific inquiry and critical thinking" organized by the [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] in association with ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'' magazine and the [[Center for Inquiry]].<ref>{{cite web|title=CSIcon Official Site|url=http://csiconference.org/|access-date=12 April 2012}}</ref>
He also delivered the IPhO 2012 lecture at the International Physics Olympiad held in Estonia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uttv.ee/naita?id=12604|title=UTTV|website=www.uttv.ee}}</ref>

In 2014, Kroto spoke at the [[Starmus Festival]] in the Canary Islands, delivering a lecture about his life in science, chemistry, and design.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sir Harold Kroto and David Eicher join Starmus Festival Board|url=http://www.starmus.com/harlod_eincher/|publisher=STARMUS Festival|access-date=2 May 2016}}</ref>