Editing Guadalajara (section)

== History ==
{{see also|Timeline of Guadalajara}}

=== Pre-Hispanic era ===

Unlike the surrounding areas, the central Atemajac Valley (where Guadalajara is located) contained no human settlements.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}} To the east of the Atemajac Valley were the Tonallan and Tetlán peoples. At the extremes were the Zapopan, Atemajac, Zoquipan, Tesistan, Coyula, and Huentitán.

The historic city center encompasses what was once four population centers, as the villages of the Mezquitán, Analco, and Mexicaltzingo were annexed to the Atemajac site in 1669.<ref name="encmuc"/>

=== Foundation ===
{{main|Nueva Galicia|Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara}}
[[File:La amazona del Teatro Degollado (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|Monument to Beatriz Hernández, one of the founders of Guadalajara]]
Guadalajara was originally founded at three other sites before moving to its current location. The first colonial settlement in 1532 was in Mesa del Cerro, now known as [[Nochistlán]], Zacatecas. This site was colonized by [[Cristóbal de Oñate]] as commissioned by [[Nuño de Guzmán]], with the purpose of securing recent conquests and "defending" them from the "still-hostile natives". This colonized settlement did not last long due to its lack of usable water sources. In 1533 it was moved to a site near [[Tonalá, Jalisco|Tonalá]]. Four years later, Guzmán ordered that the village be moved to Tlacotán. During this time, the Spanish king [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]] granted the city the coat of arms which it retains to this day.<ref name="encmuc">{{cite web |url=http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/jalisco/mpios/14039a.htm |title=Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México Estado de Jalisco Guadalajara |publisher=[[Instituto Nacional para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal]] |language=es |access-date=January 14, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616184414/http://www.e-local.gob.mx/work/templates/enciclo/jalisco/mpios/14039a.htm |archive-date=June 16, 2011 }}</ref>

During the [[Mixtón War]] (1540–1542), the [[Caxcan]], Portecuex, and [[Zacateco]] peoples, fought back against colonizers under the command of [[Tenamaxtli]].<ref name="encmuc"/> The war was initiated in response to the heinous treatment of [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples]] by Nuño de Guzmán, in particular the enslavement of captured natives. After multiple defeats, [[Viceroy]] [[Antonio de Mendoza]] took control of the Spanish campaign to suppress the revolt. The conflict ended after Mendoza made concessions such as freeing enslaved indigenous peoples and granting amnesty.<ref name="kirkwood62">{{cite book |title=History of Mexico |last=Kirkwood |first=Burton |year=2000 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |location=Westport, Connecticut |page=62 }}</ref> The village of Guadalajara barely survived the war, and the villagers attributed their survival to the [[Archangel Michael]], who remains the patron of the city to this day.

After the war, the city was moved once again—this time to a more defensible location. This final relocation would prove permanent. In 1542, records indicate that 126 people were living in Guadalajara. That same year, it was granted cityhood by the king of Spain. Guadalajara was officially founded on February 14, 1542, in the Atemajac Valley. The colonized settlement was named for Nuño de Guzmán's [[Guadalajara, Castilla–La Mancha|Spanish hometown]].<ref name="encmuc"/>

In 1559, royal and [[diocese|bishopric]] offices for the province of [[Nueva Galicia]] were moved from [[Compostela, Nayarit|Compostela]] to Guadalajara and, in 1560, Guadalajara became the province's new capital. Construction of the cathedral began in 1563. In 1575, religious orders such as the [[Augustinians]] and [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] arrived, eventually making the city a center for evangelization efforts.<ref name="encmuc"/>

While capital of the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia, the city's inhabitants achieved a high standard of living, due to flourishing industry, agriculture, commerce, mining, and trade. The Guadalajara of the 16th century was a rather small and often overlooked community. It was mainly frequented by traveling merchants. Several epidemics drastically reduced the city's indigenous population, leading to the construction of its first hospital in 1557.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carlos Regino Villalobos Espinosa |date=December 2022 |title=Moving forward: the democratization of social policy in Jalisco |url=https://journalofpublicgovernance.cucea.udg.mx/index.php/jpgp/article/view/7688 |journal=Journal of Public Governance and Policy: Latin American Review |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=4 |via=Universidad de Guadalajara}}</ref>

Guadalajara's economy during the 18th century was based on agriculture and the production of non-durable goods such as textiles, shoes and food products.<ref name="napolitano21">{{cite book |title=Migration, Mujercitas, and Medicine Men&thinsp;: Living in Urban Mexico |last=Napolitano |first=Valentina |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Ewing, New Jersey |page=21 }}</ref>

Despite epidemics, plagues, and earthquakes, Guadalajara would become one of the most important population centers in [[New Spain]].
The city's heyday attracted numerous architects, philosophers, lawyers, scientists, poets, writers, and speakers; [[Francisco Javier Clavijero]] and {{ill|Matías Ángel de la Mota Padilla|es}} were among the most prominent. In 1771, Bishop Fray Antonio Alcalde arrived in the city and founded the Civil Hospital and the [[University of Guadalajara]]. In 1791, the University of Guadalajara was established. The dedication was held in 1792 at the site of the old Santo Tomas College. While the institution was founded during the 18th century, it would not be fully developed until the 20th century, starting in 1925. In 1794, the {{ill|Hospital Real de San Miguel de Belén|es|Hospital Civil de Guadalajara}}, or simply the Hospital de Belén, was opened.<ref name="encmuc" />

In 1793, [[Mariano Valdés Téllez Giron]] ran the city's first printing press, whose first publication was a funeral eulogy for Fray Antonio Alcalde.

=== Independence ===

[[File:Nebel Voyage 42 Guadalajara.jpg|thumb|left|Guadalajara, {{circa|1836}}]]
Guadalajara remained the capital of Nueva Galicia with some modifications until the [[Mexican War of Independence]].<ref name="encmuc"/> [[Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla|Miguel Hidalgo]] entered San Pedro (now [[Tlaquepaque]]) on November 25, 1810, and the next day he was greeted effusively in Guadalajara. The city's workers had experienced poor living conditions and were swayed by promises of lower taxes and the abolition of slavery. Despite a soured welcome, due to the rebel army's violence toward city residents, especially royalists, Hidalgo kept his promise and, on December 6, 1810, slavery was abolished in Guadalajara, a proclamation which has been honored since the end of the war.<ref name="kirkwood82">{{cite book |title=History of Mexico |last=Kirkwood |first=Burton |year=2000 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, Connecticut |page=82 }}</ref> During this time, he founded the newspaper {{lang|es|El Despertador Americano}}, dedicated to the insurgent cause.<ref name="encmuc"/>

Royalist forces marched to Guadalajara, arriving in January 1811 with nearly 6,000&nbsp;men.<ref name="kirkwood83">{{cite book |title=History of Mexico |last=Kirkwood |first=Burton |year=2000 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, Connecticut |page=83 }}</ref> Insurgents [[Ignacio Allende]] and [[Mariano Abasolo]] wanted to concentrate their forces in the city and plan an escape route should they be defeated, but Hidalgo rejected this idea. Their second choice was to make a stand at the Puente de Calderon just outside the city. Hidalgo had between 80,000 and 100,000&nbsp;men and 95&nbsp;cannons, but the better-trained royalists won, decimating the insurgent army and forcing Hidalgo to flee toward [[Aguascalientes]]. Guadalajara remained in royalist hands until near the end of the war.<ref name="kirkwood83"/><ref name="Sosa">{{cite book|last=Sosa |first=Francisco |title=Biografías de Mexicanos Distinguidos: Miguel Hidalgo |volume=472 |year=1985 |publisher=Editorial Porrua |location=Mexico City |language=es |isbn=968-452-050-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biografiasdemexi0000sosa_num472/page/288 288–292] |url=https://archive.org/details/biografiasdemexi0000sosa_num472/page/288 }}</ref>

[[File:Spomenik u Guadalajari.jpg|thumb|upright|Centennial Monument to [[Mexican Independence]]]]
On January 17, 1817, the insurgent army was again defeated on the outskirts of Guadalajara in the [[Battle of Calderón Bridge]].
New Galicia, now Jalisco, adhered to the [[Plan de Iguala]] on June 13, 1821.

In 1823, Guadalajara became the capital of the newly founded state of Jalisco.<ref name="encmuc"/> In 1844, [[Mariano Paredes (President of Mexico)|General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga]] initiated a revolt against the government of President [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]]. Santa Anna personally ensured that the revolt was quelled. However, while Santa Anna was in Guadalajara, a revolt called the Three Hour Revolution brought [[José Joaquín Herrera]] to the presidency and put Santa Anna into exile.<ref name="fowler">{{cite book |title=Mexico in the Age of Proposals 1821–1853 |last=Fowler |first=Will |year=1998 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, Connecticut |page=41 }}</ref>

President [[Benito Juárez]] made Guadalajara the seat of his government in 1856, during the [[Reform War]]. French troops entered the city during the [[Second French intervention in Mexico|French Intervention]] in 1864, and it was retaken by Mexican troops in 1866.<ref name="encmuc"/>

Despite the violence, the 19th century was a period of economic, technological and social growth for the city.<ref name="napolitano18">{{cite book |title=Migration, Mujercitas, and Medicine Men&thinsp;: Living in Urban Mexico |last= Napolitano |first=Valentina |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Ewing, New Jersey, USA |page=18 }}</ref> After Independence, small-scale industries developed, many of which were owned by European immigrants. Rail lines connecting the city to the Pacific coast and north to the United States intensified trade and allowed the shipment of products from rural areas of Jalisco. [[Ranch Culture]] became a very important aspect of Jalisco and Guadalajara's identities during this time.<ref name="napolitano21"/> From 1884 to 1890, electrical and railroad services, as well as the Guadalajara Observatory were established.<ref name="encmuc"/>

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico (2021) - 206.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Guadalajara Regional [[Museum]] ({{lang|es|Museo Regional de Guadalajara}}) Inauguration November 1, 1918]]
Throughout the twentieth century, seeing growth in its industrial, tourist, and service industries, Guadalajara began a period of rapid transformation into the metropolis it is today. The city would gain the second largest economy in Mexico, following only by [[Mexico City]]. After the [[Mexican Revolution]] of 1910, Guadalajara became the second most populous city in the country. However, the decades that followed brought a number of regional wars in the states of [[Jalisco]], [[Michoacán]], and [[Guanajuato]]. The aftermath of the [[Great Depression in Latin America|Great Depression]] took a further toll on the city. Fortunately, by the 1940s the city would experience industrial, demographic, and trade growth.

In 1910, the Mexican Revolution began, bringing an end to the {{lang|es|[[Porfiriato]]}}. With conflict concentrated in the capital, Guadalajara experienced relative calm. After the Cristero Conflict, peace returned to Guadalajara and the city flourished, outgrowing its colonial roots. This period saw the birth of new schools of architecture that would decorate the city from the 1920s to the 1980s.

Guadalajara again experienced substantial growth after the 1930s,<ref name="brittanica">{{cite web |url=http://0-search.eb.com.millenium.itesm.mx/eb/article-256635 |title=Guadalajara |year=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=January 14, 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and the first industrial park was established in 1947.<ref name="encmuc"/> Its population surpassed one million in 1964,<ref name="encmuc"/> and by the 1970s it was Mexico's second-largest city<ref name="brittanica"/> and the largest in western Mexico.<ref name="napolitano21"/> Most of the modern city's urbanization took place between the 1940s and the 1980s, with the population doubling every ten years until it stood at 2.5 million in 1980.<ref name="napolitano2021">{{cite book |title=Migration, Mujercitas, and Medicine Men&thinsp;: Living in Urban Mexico |last= Napolitano |first=Valentina |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Ewing, New Jersey |pages=20–21 }}</ref> The population of the municipality has stagnated, and even declined, slowly but steadily, since the early 1990s.<ref name="CONAPOzm2005">[http://www.conapo.gob.mx/publicaciones/dzm2005/index.htm Consejo Nacional de Población, México; Delimitación de las zonas metropolitanas de México 2005] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506013007/http://www.conapo.gob.mx/publicaciones/dzm2005/index.htm |date=May 6, 2009 }} Retrieved on 2008-10-18.</ref>

The increase in population brought with it an increase in the size of what is now called Greater Guadalajara, rather than an increase in the population density of the city. Migrants coming into Guadalajara from the 1940s to the 1980s were mostly from rural areas and lived in the city center until they had enough money to buy property. This property was generally bought in the edges of the city, which were urbanizing into {{lang|es|fraccionamientos}}, or residential areas.<ref name="napolitano2324">{{cite book |title=Migration, Mujercitas, and Medicine Men&thinsp;: Living in Urban Mexico |last=Napolitano |first=Valentina |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Ewing, New Jersey |pages=23–24 }}</ref> In the 1980s, it was described as a "divided city" east to west based on socioeconomic class. Since then, the city has evolved into four sectors, which are still more or less class-centered. The upper classes tend to live in Hidalgo and Juárez in the northwest and southwest, while the lower classes tend to live in the city center, Libertad in the northeast, and southeast in Reforma. However, lower class development has expanded on the city's periphery and upper and middle classes are migrating toward Zapopan, making the situation less neatly divided.<ref name="napolitano2122">{{cite book |title=Migration, Mujercitas, and Medicine Men&thinsp;: Living in Urban Mexico |last=Napolitano |first=Valentina |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Ewing, New Jersey |pages=21–22 }}</ref>

[[File:Guadalajara, c. 1905.jpg|thumb|Central Guadalajara, {{circa|1905}}]]
Since 1996, the activity of multinational corporations has had a significant effect on the economic and social development of the city. The presence of companies such as [[Kodak]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Motorola]] and [[IBM]] has been based on production facilities built outside the city proper, bringing in foreign labor and capital. This was made possible in the 1980s by surplus labor, infrastructure improvements, and government incentives. These companies focus on electrical and electronic items, which is now one of Guadalajara's two main products (the other being beer). This has internationalized the economy, steering it away from manufacturing and toward services, dependent on technology and foreign investment. This has not been favorable for the unskilled working class and traditional labor sectors.<ref name="napolitano2022">{{cite book |title=Migration, Mujercitas, and Medicine Men&thinsp;: Living in Urban Mexico |last=Napolitano |first=Valentina |year= 2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Ewing, New Jersey |pages=20, 22 }}</ref>

The [[1992 Guadalajara explosions]] occurred on April 22, 1992, when gasoline explosions in the [[sanitary sewer|sewer]] system over four hours destroyed {{convert|8|km|0|abbr=on}} of streets in the downtown district of Analco.<ref name="dugal">{{cite journal |last1=Dugal |first1=James |year=1999 |title=Guadalajara Gas Explosion Disaster |journal=In Disaster Recovery Journal |volume=5 |issue=3 |url=http://www.drj.com/drworld/content/w2_028.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102120323/http://www.drj.com/drworld/content/w2_028.htm |archive-date=2016-01-02}}</ref> Gante Street was the most damaged. Officially, 206 people were killed, nearly 500 injured and 15,000 were left homeless. The estimated monetary damage ranges between $300 million and $1 billion. The affected areas can be recognized by their more modern architecture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eisner |first1=Peter |date= 28 April 1992 |title=Nine officials charged in sewer-line explosions case |journal=The Tech |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |volume=112 |issue=22 |url=http://tech.mit.edu/V112/N22/mexico.22w.html |access-date=14 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005045048/http://tech.mit.edu/V112/N22/mexico.22w.html |archive-date=5 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Three days before the explosion, residents started complaining of a strong [[gasoline]]-like smell coming from the sewers. City workers were dispatched to check the sewers and found dangerously high levels of gasoline fumes. However, no evacuations were ordered. An investigation into the disaster found that there were two precipitating causes. The first was new water pipes that were built too close to an existing gasoline pipeline. Chemical reactions between the pipes caused erosion. The second was a flaw in the sewer design that did not allow accumulated gases to escape.<ref name="semp">{{cite web |url=http://www.semp.us/publications/biot_reader.php?BiotID=356 |title=The Guadalajara 1992 Sewer Gas Explosion Disaster |date=3 May 2006 |publisher=SEMP |location=Massachusetts |access-date=January 14, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210235229/http://www.semp.us/publications/biot_reader.php?BiotID=356 |archive-date=10 February 2009 }}</ref>

Arrests were made to indict those responsible for the blasts.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/cases/17-03.html |title=Legal documents pertaining to this case |website=umn.edu |access-date=2010-06-07 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090902023425/http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/cases/17-03.html |archive-date=2009-09-02 |url-status=live }}</ref> Four officials of [[Pemex]] (the state oil company) were indicted and charged on the basis of negligence. Ultimately, however, these people were cleared of all charges.<ref name="indictment">{{cite magazine |date=11 May 1992 |title=News on Pemex indictment |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975488,00.html |access-date=14 January 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090902010140/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975488,00.html |archive-date=2 September 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Calls for the restructuring of PEMEX were made but they were successfully resisted.<ref name="kirkwood206">{{cite book |title= History of Mexico |last=Kirkwood |first=Burton |year=2000 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, Connecticut |page=206 }}</ref>

The 1990s were marked by events such as the [[1992 Guadalajara explosions|explosions of April 22, 1992]], the [[Mexican peso crisis]] of 1994, and the murder of the Cardinal [[Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo]] in 1993.<ref name="Rodríguez Gómez_1">{{cite book |last1=Gómez's |first1=Gabriela |last2=Rodelo |first2=Frida V. |editor-last=Rodríguez Gómez |editor-first=Guadalupe |title=Social reality and violence. Guadalajara Metropolitan Area |publisher=social incide/Institute of Technology and Higher Studies of the West |date=2012 |chapter=El protagonismo de la violencia en los medios de comunicación (The prominence of violence in the media) |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/21325174 |isbn=978-607-8044-09-2 |name-list-style=amp |access-date=5 September 2019 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918100540/https://www.academia.edu/21325174 |url-status=live }}</ref> The 1992 explosions caused massive infrastructure damage to hundreds of houses, avenues, streets, and businesses in the Analco neighborhood ({{lang|es|barrio}}), "without a clear delineator of information and responsibilities to date",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Syqueiros |first1=Luis Felipe |editor-last=Rodríguez Gómez |editor-first=Guadalupe |title=the social reality and the Violence. Metropolitan Area of Guadalajara |publisher=Social Incide / Institute of Technology and Higher Studies of the West |date=2012 |chapter=The territory, the environment and the urban conditions }}</ref> in one of the most tragic events in the history of Guadalajara. The investigation of the facts lasted more than 11 years in which insufficient evidence was found to appoint a manager,<ref name=":0" /> investigations are now closed attributing the events to an accident.<ref name=":0" /> This event, in addition to Mexico's 1994 economic crisis, resulted in the loss of Guadalajara's industrial power.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://megaconstrucciones.net/en.php |title=Megaconstrucciones |access-date=21 January 2022|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121222501/https://megaconstrucciones.net/en.php |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 260
| image1            = Pano Guadalajara IMG 20210910 182700.jpg
| caption1          = Guadalajara and [[Guadalajara metropolitan area|its metropolitan area]] have grown significantly in the 21st century, surpassing 5 million people in 2018.
| image2            = Guadalajara Av. Las Américas.jpg
| alt2              = Avenue America
| caption2          = Americas Avenue
}}