Editing Gratian (section)

==Reign==
In summer 367, Valentinian became ill at [[History of Amiens#Antiquity|Civitas Ambianensium]] ([[Amiens]]), raising questions about his succession. On recovery, he presented his then eight-year-old son to his troops on 24 August, as his co-''augustus'', passing over the customary initial step of ''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]''.{{sfn|Curran|1998|pp=83–84}}{{sfn|Lenski|2002|p=90}}{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=49}}
[[File:Valentinian1cng99000738.jpg|thumb|''Solidus'' of Valentinian I showing Valentinian and Gratian on the reverse, marked: {{Smallcaps|victores augusti}} ("''the Victors Augusti''"). A palm bough is between them and Victory crowns each with a wreath]]

=== Junior ''augustus'' ===
Valentinian, concerned with Gratian's age and inexperience, stated his son would assist commanders with upcoming campaigns.{{sfn|Hebblewhite|2019|pp=18–19}}  The ''[[magister peditum]]'' [[Merobaudes (magister peditum)|Merobaudes]], together with the [[Comes rei militaris|''comes'' ''rei militaris'']] [[Sebastianus (magister peditum)|Sebastianus]], was sent by Valentinian to campaign against the [[Quadi]].<ref name=":0">{{PLRE|title=Sebastianus 2|article=|volume=1|pages=812–813}}</ref>

When a party of [[Alamanni]] visited Valentinian's headquarters to receive the customary gifts towards the end of 364, Ursatius, the ''[[magister officiorum]]'' made them an offering they considered inferior to that of his predecessor. Angered by Ursatius' attitude, they vowed revenge and crossed over the Rhine into Roman [[Germania]] and Gaul in January 365, overwhelming the Roman defences.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=83}} Although at first unsuccessful, eventually [[Jovinus (consul)|Jovinus]], the ''[[magister equitum]]'' in Gaul inflicted heavy losses on the enemy at Scarpona ([[Dieulouard]]) and at [[Catalauni]] ([[Châlons-sur-Marne]]), forcing them to retire.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=83}} An opportunity to further weaken the Alamanni occurred in the summer of 368, when king [[Vithicabius]] was murdered in a coup, and Valentinian and his son Gratian crossed the river Moenus (the [[Main (river)|Main]]) laying waste to Alamannic territories.{{sfn|Kienast|2017c}}{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=84}}  Gratian was awarded the victory titles of ''Germanicus Maximus'' and ''Alamannicus Maximus'', and ''Francicus Maximus'' and ''Gothicus Maximus'' in 369.{{sfn|Kienast|2017c}}

Valentinian fortified the frontier from [[Raetia]] in the east to the Belgic channel, but the construction was attacked by Alamanni at Mount Pirus (the Spitzberg, [[Rottenburg am Neckar]]). In 369 (or 370) Valentinian then sought to enlist the help of the [[Burgundians]], who were involved in a dispute with the Alamanni, but a communication failure led to them returning to their lands without joining forces with the Romans.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=84}} It was then that the ''[[magister equitum]]'', [[Theodosius the Elder]] and his son Theodosius (the Theodosi) attacked the Alamanni through [[Raetia]], taking many prisoners and resettling them in the [[Po Valley]] in Italy.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=84}} Valentinian made one attempt to capture [[Macrian]]us in 372, but eventually made peace with him in 374.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=85}}

Gratian, who was then 15, was married in 374 to [[Constantius II]]'s 13 year-old posthumous daughter [[Constantia (wife of Gratian)|Constantia]] at [[Trier]].{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=85}}{{sfn|Lenski|2002|p=103}}{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=105}}

The necessity to make peace was the increasing threat from other peoples, the [[Quadi]] and the [[Sarmatians]]. Valentinian's decision to establish garrisons across the Danube had angered them, and the situation escalated after the Quadi king, [[Gabinia gens|Gabinus]], was killed during negotiations with the Romans in 374. Consequently, in the autumn, the Quadi crossed the Danube plundering Pannonia and the provinces to the south.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=85}} The situation deteriorated further once the Sarmatians made common cause inflicting heavy losses on the Pannonica and Moesiaca legions.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=85}} However, on encountering Theodosius' forces on the borders of [[Moesia]] in the eastern Balkans, which had previously defeated one of their armies in 373, they sued for peace.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=85}} Valentinian mounted a further offensive against the Quadi in August 375, this time using a [[pincer movement]], one force attacking from the northwest, while Valentinian himself headed to [[Aquincum]] (Budapest), crossed the Danube and attacked from the southeast.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=85}} This campaign resulted in heavy losses to the enemy, following which he returned to Aquincum and from there to Brigetio ([[Szőny]], Hungary) where he died suddenly in November.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=86}}

=== Senior ''augustus'' ===
When his father died on 17 November 375, Gratian inherited the administration of the western empire.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=80}} Days later, Gratian's half-brother Valentinian was [[Acclamatio|acclaimed]] ''augustus'' by troops in Pannonia.{{sfn|Lenski|2002|p=357}} He was forced to accept the proclamation, though he did supervise his younger brother's upbringing.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=85}} Despite Valentinian being given nominal authority over the [[praetorian prefectures]] of [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy|Italy]], [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum|Illyricum]], and [[Praetorian prefecture of Africa|Africa]], Gratian ruled the western Roman empire himself.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=62}} His tutor Ausonius became his ''[[quaestor]]'', and together with the {{lang|la|[[magister militum]]}}, [[Merobaudes (magister peditum)|Merobaudes]], the power behind the throne.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=80}} Neither Gratian or Valentinian travelled much, which was thought to be due to not wanting the populace to realise how young they were. Gratian is said to have visited Rome in 376, possibly to celebrate his {{lang|la|[[decennalia]]}} on 24 August,{{sfn|Kienast|2017c}} but whether the visit actually took place is disputed.{{sfn|Kulikowski|2019|p=80}}
[[File:Gratian Solidus.jpg|thumb|''Solidus'' of Gratian]]
[[File:Alemanni expansion.png|thumb|Location of the battle of Argentovaria in 378.]]

Gratian's uncle Valens, returning from a campaign against the [[Sasanian Empire]], had sent a request to Gratian for reinforcements against the Goths.{{sfn|Lenski|2002|p=356}} According to [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], Valens also requested that Sebastianus be sent to him for the war, though according to [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] Sebastianus went to Constantinople of his own accord as a result of intrigues by [[eunuchs]] at the western court.<ref name=":0" />  Once Gratian had put down the invasions in the west in early 378, he notified Valens that he was returning to Thrace to assist him in his struggle against the Goths. Late in July, Valens was informed that the Goths were advancing on [[Adrianople]] (Edirne) and [[Nice (Thrace)|Nice]], and started to move his forces into the area. However, Gratian's arrival was delayed by an encounter with [[Alans]] at [[Castra Martis]], in Dacia in the western Balkans.  

The forces Gratian sent never reached Valens due to its commander feigning illness.{{sfn|Lenski|2002|p=339}} Weeks later, Gratian had arrived in [[Castra Martis]] with a few thousand men, by which time Valens was at Adrianople ({{Langx|la|Hadrianopolis}}; {{Langx|tr|[[Edirne]]}}).{{sfn|Lenski|2002|p=366}} Encouraged by his advisors to claim victory without sharing the glory with Gratian, as well as being misinformed about the number of enemy troops,{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=76}} Valens attacked the Gothic army and as a result thousands{{efn|Heather estimates 10,000 Roman dead,{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=181}} Williams & Friell state 20,000 Roman dead.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|pp=18–19}}}} of Romans died in the [[Battle of Adrianople]] along with Sebastianus and the emperor himself.{{sfn|Lenski|2002|p=339}}{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=181}}<ref name=":0" /> 
[[File:Gratian Trier enhanced.jpg|thumb|Marble portrait head perhaps representing Gratian ([[Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier]])]]
[[File:Theodosius1cng11100822.jpg|thumb|''Solidus'' of Theodosius I showing Theodosius and Gratian on the reverse, marked: {{Smallcaps|victoria {{abbreviation|augg|augusti}}}} ("''the Victory of the Augusti''")]] In the immediate aftermath of Adrianople, Gratian issued an edict of tolerance at Sirmium, restoring bishops exiled by Valens and ensuring religious freedoms to all religions.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|pp=119–121}} Following the battle, the Goths raided from Thrace in 378 to Illyricum the following year.{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=183}}{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|pp=27–28}} Convinced that one emperor alone was incapable of repelling the inundation of foes on several different fronts, Gratian, now senior ''augustus'' following Valens's death,{{sfn|Grainger|2020|p=244}} appointed [[Theodosius I]] ''augustus'' on 19 January 379 to govern the east.{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=187}}{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=26}}  On 3 August that year, Gratian issued an edict against heresy.{{sfn|Kienast|2017c}}

On 27 February 380, Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius issued the [[Edict of Thessalonica]].{{sfn|Medina|2018|p=92}} This edict made [[Nicene Christianity]] the only legal form of Christianity, outlawing all of its other branches,{{sfn|Medina|2018|p=92}} ending a period of widespread religious tolerance that had existed since the death of Julian.{{sfn|Dill|1958|p=26}} [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]]' report that Gratian refused the robe of office of the ''pontifex maximus'' has been doubted by modern scholars, because there is no other mention of such a garment associated with the priesthood.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=123}} Emperors from Gratian to [[Marcian]] styled themselves as ''[[pontifex inclytus]]'', "honorable pontiff". The title of ''pontifex maximus'' was not adopted by the [[Pope|bishops of Rome]] until the [[Renaissance]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Curran |first=John R. |title=From Petrus to Pontifex Maximus |date=2020 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004425682/BP000015.xml |work=The Early Reception and Appropriation of the Apostle Peter |pages=43–57 |access-date= |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-42568-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hekster |first1=Olivier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zEKdEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |title=Caesar rules |date=2022 |publisher=CUP|isbn=978-1009226790 |page=36}}</ref>

In September 380, the ''augusti'' Gratian and Theodosius met, returning the Roman diocese of Dacia to Gratian's control and that of [[Diocese of Macedonia|Macedonia]] to Valentinian II.{{sfn|Kienast|2017c}}{{sfn|Kienast|2017b}} The same year, Gratian won a victory, possibly over the Alamanni, that was announced officially at Constantinople.{{sfn|Kienast|2017c}}

By 380, the [[Greuthungi]] tribe of Goths moved into [[Pannonia]], only to be defeated by Gratian.{{sfn|Heather|2006|p=183}} Consequently, the [[Vandals]] and [[Alemanni]] were threatening to cross the Rhine, now that Gratian had departed from the region.{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=29}} With the collapse of the [[Danubian Limes|Danube frontier]]{{efn|See also [[Roman military frontiers and fortifications]]}} under the incursions of the Huns and Goths, Gratian moved his seat from Augusta Treverorum (Trier) to [[Mediolanum]] ([[Milan]]) in 381.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=85}} He became increasingly aligned with the city's [[bishop]], [[Ambrose]], and the Roman Senate, shifting the balance of power within the factions of the western empire.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=104}}{{sfn|Radde-Gallwitz|2018|p=14}}

In 382, Gratian issued edicts that removed the statue of the winged goddess [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]] from the Senate floor,{{sfn|Jolly|1997|p=45}} removed the privileges of [[Vestal Virgins]],{{sfn|Testa|2015|p=407}} and confiscated money designated for sacrifices and ceremonies.{{sfn|Hinson|1995|p=218}} He declared that all of the pagan temples and shrines were to be confiscated by the government and that their revenues were to be joined to the property of the [[Fiscus|treasury]].{{sfn|Crosby|2015|p=151}} This resulted in protests from the [[Roman Senate]] led by [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus|Symmachus]], which in turn was counter-protested by Christian senators led by [[Pope Damasus I|Pope Damasus]].{{sfn|Clark|2011|p=75}}

On 16 January 383 Theodosius made his son Arcadius co-emperor, evidently without Gratian's approval as he never recognized the promotion on his coinage.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|pp=83-84}}{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=154}} Within the same year, Gratian's wife Constantia died, and he remarried to [[Laeta]].{{sfn|McEvoy|2016|pp=167-168}} Both marriages remained childless.{{sfn|Oost|1968|p=38}}{{efn|The PLRE wrongly says that Gratian and Constantia had a son that predeceased his father. None of the sources it cites supports the claim.{{sfn|McEvoy|2016|p=165}}}}

Gratian alienated the army by his favouritism towards his Alan deserters, whom he made his bodyguards and to whom he gave military commands and allowing them to perform human sacrifices to [[Ares]].{{efn|McLynn suggested that the regiment of Alans was a pragmatic decision, which would also make the army's hostility well founded.{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=153}}}} Other criticisms of his behavior were that he surrounded himself with bad company{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|p=85}}{{sfn|McLynn|1994|pp=152-153}} and neglected the affairs of state,{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=37}} preferring to have fun.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=105}}<ref>Walter E. Roberts, [http://www.roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/gratian.htm Gratian (367-83 A.D.)]</ref>{{efn|Williams and Friell remarked that, “There is still no clear reason as to why Gratian's support crumbled so quickly.”{{sfn|Williams|Friell|1995|p=36}}}} [[Vegetius]] reports that Gratian allowed soldiers to lay aside the armour and the helmet.<ref>Milner NP. Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, second edition, Liverpool University Press, 1996. pp. xxxvii ff</ref><ref>Rosenbaum, S; "''Who was Vegetius?''" published on Academia.edu 2015 https://www.academia.edu/5496690/Who_was_Vegetius</ref> 

In the summer of 383 Gratian was again at war with the Alamanni in [[Raetia]].{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=105}}{{sfn|McLynn|1994|p=154}} Shortly after, the Roman general [[Magnus Maximus]] had raised the standard of revolt in [[Roman Britain|Britain]] and invaded [[Gaul]] with a large army.{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p=186}} Maximus, who had served under the ''comes'' Theodosius and had won a victory over the [[Picts]] in 382, was proclaimed ''augustus'' and crossed the channel, encamping near Paris. There, his forces encountered Gratian, but much of the latter's army defected to the usurper, forcing Gratian to flee.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013|pages=83–84}}{{sfn|Halsall|2007|p=186}}{{sfn|White|2011|p=154}}

[[File:INC-3045-r Солид. Грациан. Ок. 367—375 гг. (реверс).png|thumb|Reverse of a ''solidus'' of Gratian marked: {{Smallcaps|victoria augustorum}} ("''the Victory of the'' augusti")]]