Editing Gladiator (section)

===Origins===
[[File:Fronton marmol anfiteatro romano de Merida.JPG|thumb|Relief of gladiators from [[Amphitheatre of Mérida]], Spain]]
Early literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games.<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|p=17}}; {{harvnb|Kyle|1998|p=82}}.</ref> In the late 1st century BC, [[Nicolaus of Damascus]] believed they were [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|pp=16–17}}. Nicolaus cites [[Posidonius]]'s support for a [[Celt]]ic origin and Hermippus' for a [[Mantinea]]n (therefore [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]) origin.</ref> A generation later, [[Livy]] wrote that they were first held in 310 BC by the [[Campanians]] in celebration of their victory over the [[Samnium|Samnites]].<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=4–7}}. Futrell is citing Livy, 9.40.17.</ref> Long after the games had ceased, the 7th century AD writer [[Isidore of Seville]] derived Latin ''[[wikt:lanista#Latin|lanista]]'' (manager of gladiators) from the Etruscan word for "executioner", and the title of "[[Charon (mythology)|Charon]]" (an official who accompanied the dead from the Roman gladiatorial arena) from [[Charun]], [[psychopomp]] of the Etruscan underworld.<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=14–15}}.</ref> This was accepted and repeated in most early modern, standard histories of the games.<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|p=11}}.</ref>

For some modern scholars, reappraisal of pictorial evidence supports a Campanian origin, or at least a borrowing, for the games and gladiators.<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|p=18}}; {{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=3–5}}.</ref> [[Ancient Campania|Campania]] hosted the earliest known gladiator schools (''[[Ludus (ancient Rome)|ludi]]'').<ref>{{harvnb|Futrell|2006|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Potter|Mattingly|1999|p=226}}.</ref> Tomb [[fresco]]es from the Campanian city of [[Paestum]] (4th century BC) show paired fighters, with helmets, spears and shields, in a propitiatory funeral blood-rite that anticipates early Roman gladiator games.<ref>{{harvnb|Potter|Mattingly|1999|p=226}}. Paestum was colonized by Rome in 273 BC.</ref> Compared to these images, supporting evidence from Etruscan tomb-paintings is tentative and late. The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|pp=15, 18}}.</ref>

Livy places the first Roman gladiator games (264 BC) in the early stage of Rome's [[First Punic War]], against [[Carthage]], when [[Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva]] had three gladiator pairs fight to the death in Rome's "cattle market" forum (''[[Forum Boarium]]'') to honor his dead father, Brutus Pera. Livy describes this as a "''munus''" (plural: ''[[Munera (ancient Rome)|munera]]''), a gift, in this case a commemorative duty owed the [[manes]] (spirit, or shade) of a dead ancestor by his descendants.<ref>{{harvnb|Welch|2007|pp=18–19}}. Livy's account (summary 16) places beast-hunts and gladiatorial ''munera'' within this single ''munus''.</ref><ref>A single, later source describes the gladiator type involved as [[Thraex|Thracian]]. See {{harvnb|Welch|2007|p=19}}. Welch is citing Ausanius: Seneca simply says they were "war captives".</ref> The development of the gladiator ''munus'' and its [[List of Roman gladiator types|gladiator types]] was most strongly influenced by Samnium's support for [[Hannibal]] and the subsequent punitive expeditions against the Samnites by Rome and its Campanian allies; the earliest, most frequently mentioned and probably most popular type was the [[Samnite (gladiator type)|Samnite]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wiedemann|1992|p=33}}; {{harvnb|Kyle|1998|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Kyle|2007|p=273}}. Evidence of "Samnite" as an insult in earlier writings fades as Samnium is absorbed into the republic.</ref>

To quote Livy:

<blockquote>
The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion. The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps: the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver&nbsp;... The Romans had already heard of these splendid accoutrements, but their generals had taught them that a soldier should be rough to look on, not adorned with gold and silver but putting his trust in iron and in courage&nbsp;... The Dictator, as decreed by the senate, celebrated a triumph, in which by far the finest show was afforded by the captured armour. So the Romans made use of the splendid armour of their enemies to do honour to their gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name Samnites.<ref>Livy 9.40. Quoted in {{harvnb|Futrell|2006|pp=4–5}}.</ref>
</blockquote>

Livy's account skirts the funereal, sacrificial function of early Roman gladiator combats and reflects the later theatrical ethos of the Roman gladiator show: splendidly, exotically armed and armoured [[barbarians]], treacherous and degenerate, are dominated by Roman iron and native courage.<ref>{{harvnb|Kyle|1998|p=67 (Note #84)}}. Livy's published works are often embellished with illustrative rhetorical detail.</ref> His plain Romans virtuously dedicate the magnificent spoils of war to the gods. Their Campanian allies stage a dinner entertainment using gladiators who may not be Samnites, but play the Samnite role. Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded. Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome.<ref>The ''velutes'' and later, the ''provocatores'' were exceptions, but as "historicised" rather than contemporary Roman types.</ref> The gladiator ''munus'' became a morally instructive form of historic enactment in which the only honourable option for the gladiator was to fight well, or else die well.<ref>{{harvnb|Kyle|1998|pp=80–81}}.</ref>