Editing Germans (section)

==History==
{{See also|History of Germany}}
[[File:Germania romana.jpg|thumb|A map depicting the short-lived [[Roman province]] of [[Germania Antiqua]], situated between the [[Rhine]] and [[Elbe]] rivers, a region which the early [[Roman Empire]] attempted to conquer and control]]

===Ancient history===
{{See also|Germania Antiqua|Limes Germanicus|Germanic peoples|Germania}}
[[File:HRR 10Jh.jpg|thumb|The [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 972 (red line) and 1035 (red dots) with the [[Kingdom of Germany]], including [[Lotharingia]], marked in blue]]
The first information about the peoples living in what is now Germany was provided by the Roman general and dictator [[Julius Caesar]], who gave an account of his conquest of [[Gaul]] in the 1st century BC. He used the term {{lang|la|Germani}} to describe the [[Germanic peoples]] living on both sides of the [[Rhine]] river, which he defined as a boundary between geographical [[Gaul]] and [[Germania]]. He emphasized that the {{lang|la|Germani}} originated east of the river, and that this river border needed to be defended in order to avoid dangerous incursions. Archaeological evidence shows that at the time of Caesar's invasion, both Gaul and Germanic regions had long been strongly influenced by the same [[Celts|celtic]] [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] [[material culture|culture]].<ref name="Heather"/> However, the [[Germanic languages]] associated with later Germanic peoples are indeed believed to have been entering the Rhine area from the east in this period.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=288–289}} The resulting demographic situation reported by Caesar was that migrating Celts and Germanic peoples were moving into areas which threatened the Alpine regions and the Romans.<ref name="Heather"/>

The modern German language is a descendant of the Germanic languages which spread during the Iron Age and Roman era. Scholars generally agree that it is possible to speak of Germanic languages existing as early as 500 BCE.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=32}} These Germanic languages are believed to have dispersed towards the Rhine from the direction of the [[Jastorf culture]], which was itself a Celtic influenced culture that existed in the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]], in the region near the Elbe river. It is likely that [[Grimm's law|first Germanic consonant shift]], which defines the Germanic language family, occurred during this period.{{sfn|Steuer|2021|p=89, 1310}} The earlier [[Nordic Bronze Age]] of southern Scandinavia also shows definite population and material continuities with the Jastorf Culture,{{sfn|Timpe|Scardigli|2010|p=636}} but it is unclear whether these indicate ethnic continuity.{{sfn|Todd|1999|p=11}}

Under Caesar's successors, the Romans began to conquer and control the entire region between the Rhine and the Elbe which centuries later constituted the largest part of medieval Germany. These efforts were significantly hampered by the victory of a local alliance led by [[Arminius]] at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in 9 AD, which is considered a defining moment in German history. While the Romans were nevertheless victorious, rather than installing a Roman administration they controlled the region indirectly for centuries, recruiting soldiers there, and playing the tribes off against each other.<ref name="Heather"/>{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=172}} The early Germanic peoples were later famously described in more detail in ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' by the 1st century Roman historian [[Tacitus]]. He described them as a diverse group, dominating a much larger area than Germany, stretching to the [[Vistula]] in the east, and [[Scandinavia]] in the north.

===Medieval history===
{{See also|Kingdom of Germany}}
[[File:Bevölkerung Mitteleuropas um 895.jpg|thumb|Maps depicting the [[Ostsiedlung]], also known as the German eastward settlement. The left map shows the situation in roughly 895 AD; the right map shows it about 1400 AD. Germanic peoples (left map) and Germans (right map) are shown in light red.]]
[[File:Holy Roman Empire 1648.svg|thumb|The [[Holy Roman Empire]] after the [[Peace of Westphalia]], 1648]]
German ethnicity began to emerge in medieval times among the descendants of those [[Germanic peoples]] who had lived under heavy Roman influence between the Rhine and Elbe rivers. This included [[Franks]], [[Frisians]], [[Saxons]], [[Thuringii]], [[Alemanni]] and [[Baiuvarii]] – all of whom spoke related dialects of [[West Germanic]].<ref name="Heather">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/History#ref58082|title=Germany: Ancient History|last=Heather|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Heather|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|access-date=21 November 2020|quote=Within the boundaries of present-day Germany... Germanic peoples such as the eastern Franks, Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians, Alemanni, and Bavarians—all speaking West Germanic dialects—had merged Germanic and borrowed Roman cultural features. It was among these groups that a German language and ethnic identity would gradually develop during the Middle Ages.|archive-date=31 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331232159/https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/History#ref58082|url-status=live}}</ref>
These peoples had come under the dominance of the western Franks starting with [[Clovis I]], who established control of the Romanized and Frankish population of Gaul in the 5th century, and began a process of conquering the peoples east of the Rhine. The regions long continued to be divided into "[[Stem duchies]]", corresponding to the old ethnic designations.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=288–289}} By the early 9th century AD, large parts of Europe were united under the rule of the Frankish leader [[Charlemagne]], who expanded the [[Frankish empire]] in several directions including east of the Rhine, consolidating power over the [[Saxons]] and [[Frisians]], and establishing the [[Carolingian Empire]]. Charlemagne was crowned emperor by [[Pope Leo III]] in 800.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=288–289}}

In the generations after Charlemagne the empire was partitioned at the [[Treaty of Verdun]] (843), eventually resulting in the long-term separation between the states of [[West Francia]], [[Middle Francia]] and [[East Francia]]. Beginning with [[Henry the Fowler]], non-Frankish dynasties also ruled the eastern kingdom, and under his son [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]], East Francia, which was mostly German, constituted the core of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|pp=313–314}} Also under control of this loosely controlled empire were the previously independent kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Italy]], [[Kingdom of Burgundy#Kingdom of Arles within the Holy Roman Empire (after 1033)|Burgundy]], and [[Lotharingia]]. The latter was a Roman and Frankish area which contained some of the oldest and most important old German cities including [[Aachen]], [[Cologne]] and [[Trier]], all west of the Rhine, and it became another Duchy within the eastern kingdom. Leaders of the stem duchies which constituted this eastern kingdom — Lotharingia, [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]], [[Duchy of Franconia|Franconia]], [[Duchy of Swabia|Swabia]], [[Duchy of Thuringia|Thuringia]], and [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxony]] ― initially wielded considerable power independently of the king.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=288–289}} German kings were elected by members of the noble families, who often sought to have weak kings elected in order to preserve their own independence. This prevented an early unification of the Germans.{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|p=314}}{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=289–290}}

A warrior nobility dominated the [[feudalism|feudal]] German society of the Middle Ages, while most of the German population consisted of peasants with few political rights.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=288–289}} The church played an important role in the Holy Roman Empire in the Middle Ages, and competed with the nobility for power.{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=173}} Between the 11th and 13th centuries, German speakers from the empire actively participated in five [[Crusades]] to "liberate" the [[Holy Land]].{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=173}} From the beginnings of the kingdom, its dynasties also participated in a push eastwards into Slavic-speaking regions. At the [[Saxon Eastern March]] in the north, the [[Polabian Slavs]] east of the Elbe were conquered over generations of often brutal conflict. Under the later control of powerful German dynasties it became an important region within modern Germany, and home to its modern capital, Berlin. German population also moved eastwards from the 11th century, in what is known as the [[Ostsiedlung]].{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=289–290}} Over time, Slavic and German-speaking populations assimilated, meaning that many modern Germans have substantial Slavic ancestry.{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|pp=313–314}} From the 12th century, many German speakers settled as merchants and craftsmen in the [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Kingdom of Poland]], where they came to constitute a significant proportion of the population in many urban centers such as [[Gdańsk]].{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|pp=313–314}} During the 13th century, the [[Teutonic Order|Teutonic Knights]] began conquering the [[Old Prussians]], and established what would eventually become the powerful German state of [[Prussia]].{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=289–290}}

Further south, [[Bohemia]] and [[Hungary]] developed as kingdoms with their own non-German speaking elites. The [[Margraviate of Austria|Austrian March]] on the [[Middle Danube]] stopped expanding eastwards towards Hungary in the 11th century. Under [[Ottokar II of Bohemia|Ottokar II]], Bohemia (corresponding roughly to modern Czechia) became a kingdom within the empire, and even managed to take control of Austria, which was German-speaking. However, the late 13th century saw the election of [[Rudolf I of Germany|Rudolf I]] of the [[House of Habsburg]] to the imperial throne, and he was able to acquire Austria for his own family. The Habsburgs would continue to play an important role in European history for centuries afterwards. Under the leadership of the Habsburgs the Holy Roman Empire itself remained weak, and by the late Middle Ages much of Lotharingia and Burgundy had come under the control of French dynasts, the [[House of Valois-Burgundy]] and [[House of Valois-Anjou]]. Step by step, Italy, Switzerland, [[Lorraine]], and [[Savoy]] were no longer subject to effective imperial control.

Trade increased and there was a specialization of the arts and crafts.{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=173}} In the late Middle Ages the German economy grew under the influence of urban centers, which increased in size and wealth and formed powerful leagues, such as the [[Hanseatic League]] and the [[Swabian League]], in order to protect their interests, often through supporting the German kings in their struggles with the nobility.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=289–290}} These urban leagues significantly contributed to the development of German commerce and banking. German merchants of Hanseatic cities settled in cities throughout Northern Europe beyond the German lands.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|p=290}}

===Modern history===
{{See Also|Early Modern history of Germany|History of Germany (1990–present)}}
[[File:Map-GermanConfederation.svg|thumb|Boundaries of the [[German Confederation]] in red, [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] in blue, [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] in yellow, and other member states in grey. Large parts of [[Austria]] and some parts of [[Prussia]] did not belong to the German Confederation.]]
[[File:Mass Grave at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp - Fritz Klein - IWM BU4260.jpg|thumb|Victims of [[the Holocaust]] in a mass grave at [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp]]]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-2003-0703-500, Rückführung deutscher Kinder aus Polen.jpg|thumb|Germans [[Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II|expelled]] from [[Polish People's Republic|Poland]] in 1948]]
The Habsburg dynasty managed to maintain their grip upon the imperial throne in the [[early modern period]]. While the empire itself continued to be largely de-centralized, the Habsburgs' personal power increased outside of the core German lands. [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] personally inherited control of the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, the wealthy low countries (roughly modern Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands), the Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Sicily, Naples, and Sardinia, and the Dukedom of Milan. Of these, the Bohemian and Hungarian titles remained connected to the imperial throne for centuries, making Austria a powerful multilingual empire in its own right. On the other hand, the [[low countries]] went to the Spanish crown and continued to evolve separately from Germany.

The introduction of printing by the German inventor [[Johannes Gutenberg]] contributed to the formation of a new understanding of faith and reason. At this time, the German monk [[Martin Luther]] pushed for reforms within the Catholic Church. Luther's efforts culminated in the [[Reformation|Protestant Reformation]].{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=173}}

Religious schism was a leading cause of the [[Thirty Years' War]], a conflict that tore apart the Holy Roman Empire and its neighbours, leading to the death of millions of Germans. The terms of the [[Peace of Westphalia]] (1648) ending the war, included a major reduction in the central authority of the Holy Roman Emperor.{{sfn|Moser|2011|pp=173–174}} Among the most powerful German states to emerge in the aftermath was Protestant [[Prussia]], under the rule of the [[House of Hohenzollern]].{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=290–291}} Charles V and his Habsburg dynasty defended Roman Catholicism.

In the 18th century, German culture was significantly influenced by the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]].{{sfn|Moser|2011|pp=173–174}}

After centuries of political fragmentation, a sense of German unity began to emerge in the 18th century.{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|p=313}} The Holy Roman Empire continued to decline until being [[Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire|dissolved]] altogether by [[Napoleon]] in 1806. In central Europe, the Napoleonic wars ushered in great social, political and economic changes, and catalyzed a [[national revival|national awakening]] among the Germans. By the late 18th century, German intellectuals such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] articulated the concept of a German identity rooted in language, and this notion helped spark the [[German nationalism|German nationalist]] movement, which sought to unify the Germans into a single [[nation state]].{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|p=314}} Eventually, shared ancestry, culture and language (though not religion) came to define German nationalism.{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=172}} The [[Napoleonic Wars]] ended with the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1815), and left most of the German states loosely united under the [[German Confederation]]. The confederation came to be dominated by the Catholic [[Austrian Empire]], to the dismay of many German nationalists, who saw the German Confederation as an inadequate answer to the [[German Question]].{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=290–291}}

Throughout the 19th century, Prussia continued to grow in power.{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=174}} [[Revolutions of 1848|In 1848]], German revolutionaries set up the temporary [[Frankfurt Parliament]], but failed in their aim of forming a united German homeland. The Prussians proposed an [[Erfurt Union]] of the German states, but this effort was torpedoed by the Austrians through the [[Punctation of Olmütz]] (1850), recreating the German Confederation. In response, Prussia sought to use the [[Zollverein]] customs union to increase its power among the German states.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=290–291}} Under the leadership of [[Otto von Bismarck]], Prussia expanded its sphere of influence and together with its German allies defeated [[Denmark]] in the [[Second Schleswig War]] and soon after [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] in the [[Austro-Prussian War]], subsequently establishing the [[North German Confederation]]. In 1871, the Prussian coalition decisively defeated the [[Second French Empire]] in the [[Franco-Prussian War]], annexing the German speaking region of [[Alsace-Lorraine]]. After taking Paris, Prussia and their allies [[Proclamation of the German Empire|proclaimed]] the formation of a united [[German Empire]].{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|p=314}}

In the years following unification, German society was radically changed by numerous processes, including industrialization, rationalization, secularization and the rise of capitalism.{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=174}} German power increased considerably and numerous overseas colonies were established.{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=291–292}} During this time, the German population grew considerably, and many emigrated to other countries (mainly North America), contributing to the growth of the [[German diaspora]]. Competition for colonies between the Great Powers contributed to the outbreak of [[World War I]], in which the German, Austro-Hungarian and [[Ottoman Empire]]s formed the [[Central Powers]], an alliance that was ultimately defeated, with none of the empires comprising it surviving the aftermath of the war. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires were both dissolved and partitioned, resulting in millions of Germans becoming ethnic minorities in other countries.{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|pp=314–315}} The monarchical rulers of the German states, including the German emperor [[Wilhelm II]], were overthrown in the [[November Revolution of 1918|November Revolution]] which led to the establishment of the [[Weimar Republic]]. The Germans of the [[Cisleithania|Austrian]] side of the [[Austria-Hungary|Dual Monarchy]] proclaimed the [[Republic of German-Austria]], and sought to be incorporated into the German state, but this was forbidden by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)|Treaty of Saint-Germain]].{{sfn|Minahan|2000|pp=291–292}}
[[File:Thefalloftheberlinwall1989.JPG|thumb|People standing on top the [[Berlin Wall]] during [[Fall of the Berlin Wall|its fall]] in 1989 in front of the [[Brandenburg Gate]]]]
What many Germans saw as the "humiliation of Versailles",{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|p=316}} continuing traditions of authoritarian and [[antisemitic]] ideologies,{{sfn|Moser|2011|p=174}} and the [[Great Depression]] all contributed to the rise of Austrian-born [[Adolf Hitler]] and the Nazis, who after coming to power democratically in the early 1930s, abolished the Weimar Republic and formed the totalitarian [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]]. In his quest to subjugate Europe, six million [[Jews]] were murdered in [[the Holocaust]]. WWII resulted in widespread destruction and the deaths of tens of millions of soldiers and civilians, while the German state was partitioned. About 12 million Germans [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|had to flee or were expelled]] from Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Troebst|first=Stefan|title=The Discourse on Forced Migration and European Culture of Remembrance|journal=The Hungarian Historical Review|volume=1|number=3/4|year=2012|pages=397–414|jstor=42568610}}</ref> Significant damage was also done to the German reputation and identity,{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|pp=314–315}} which became far less nationalistic than it previously was.{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|p=316}}

The German states of [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]] became focal points of the [[Cold War]], but were [[German reunification|reunified]] in 1990. Although there were fears that the reunified Germany might resume nationalist politics, the country is today widely regarded as a "stablizing actor in the heart of Europe" and a "promoter of democratic integration".{{sfn|Haarmann|2015|p=316}}