Editing Gentile (section)

==Judaism==
{{see also |Who is a Jew?}}

===The Hebrew Bible===
In 2006, the academic David Novak wrote, with limited exceptions, "The [[Bible]] can be seen as one long discussion of what differentiates Israel from all the other peoples of the world."<ref name=Novak>{{cite book | last=Novak | first=David |editor-first=S. |editor-last=Katz |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism | chapter=Gentiles in rabbinic thought | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=2006-06-22 | doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.027 | pages=647–662| isbn=9781139055130 }}</ref>

The [[Hebrew Bible]] does not have a word which directly corresponds to the modern concept of a ''gentile'' (see ''etymology'' above). Instead, the Bible views different groups of gentiles in different ways. Novak states that, "The biblical categories of Gentiles, beginning with those farthest removed from a relationship with Israel and moving up to those closest to a relationship with Israel, seem to be: (1) the Amalekites; (2) the seven Canaanite nations; (3) the nations of the world; (4) the Samaritans; (5) slaves; (6) resident aliens; (7) proselytes."<ref name=Novak />

The Hebrew Bible does not show much concern for non-Israelites except insofar as they interact with the people of Israel. Nonetheless, because the God of Israel is a universal God, there must be some relationship between gentiles and God. Accordingly, Novak observes, gentiles as well as  [[Israelites]] are enjoined in the book of Psalms to "ascribe to the Lord glory and strength" ({{Bibleverse|Psalms|96:7|HE}}).<ref name=Novak />

Christine E. Hayes states that gentiles in the Hebrew Bible were generally ''[[Ger toshav|gerim]]'' (resident aliens). They were not necessarily converts, whether in the modern or rabbinic sense, but were still given many rights and privileges. They were also allowed to keep their distinct ethnic identities. But after [[Ezra-Nehemiah]], many Israelites believed there was an impermeable ritual and genealogical boundary between themselves and gentiles.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Hayes |first=Christine E. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12793/chapter/162974770?login=true |title=Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities: Intermarriage and Conversion from the Bible to the Talmud |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199834273 |pages=19–44}}</ref> However, other scholars argue that the boundary is rooted in religious factors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Venter |first=Pieter M. |date=2018 |title=The dissolving of marriages in Ezra 9-10 and Nehemiah 13 revisited |url=http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0259-94222018000400001 |journal=HTS Theological Studies |volume=74 |issue=4 |via=Scielo}}</ref>

Saul Oylan argues that gentiles automatically became Israelite when they lived in one of their tribal territories, which was believed to reflect 'early practices' ({{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|47:21-23}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olyan |first=Saul |title=Rites and Rank: Hierarchy in Biblical Representations of Cult |date=2000 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02948-1}}</ref>

Troy W. Martin believes Jewishness is defined by adherence to covenantal circumcision, regardless of ancestry ({{Bibleverse|Genesis|17:9-14}}). Thus, even an uncircumcised Jew could be a gentile despite his biological descent from Abraham. He believes this view was extended to the [[New Testament]], where membership in God's chosen people was based on religious adherence rather than ancestry ({{Bibleverse|Galatians|3:28}}). <ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last=Martin |first=Troy W. |date=2003 |title=The Covenant of Circumcision (Genesis 17:9-14) and the Situational Antitheses in Galatians 3:28 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3268093 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=111–125 |doi=10.2307/3268093 |jstor=3268093 }}</ref>

=== Tannaim ===
{{See also|Tannaim}}
[[Tannaim]] were the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the [[Mishnah]], from approximately 10–220 CE.

It was this [[rabbinic literature]] of the first centuries CE that developed the concept of the gentile as we understand it today - as "any individual who is not a Jew, erasing all ethnic and social differences among different others".<ref name=Zvi /> {{blockquote |text="Mishnah-Tosefta makes no clear distinction among the various types of non-Israelites. Romans, Greeks, Syrians, Egyptians, and the like are classified merely as gentiles, ''goyim'' or ''nokrim''" "The rabbis... had one term for all non-Israelites, whether idolaters or farmers, liars or trustworthy, Greek or Roman." |multiline=yes |author=Gary G. Porton, 2020<ref name=Porton>{{cite book |first=Gary G. |last=Porton | title=Goyim: Gentiles and Israelites in Mishnah-Tosefta  | chapter=The Gentiles as Non-Israelites | publisher=Brown Judaic Studies | date=2020 | doi=10.2307/j.ctvzpv4vp.17 | pages=285–308|s2cid=241062166 }}</ref>}}

However, the attitudes of the Rabbis to gentiles were not simple or uniform. Porton argues that the Mishnah-Tosefta discusses gentiles for two quite different reasons: firstly, practically, to guide the relations between Israelites and gentiles who were living alongside each other in Palestine. Secondly, at a theoretical level, gentiles are discussed because, in order to define the people of Israel and its symbols and institutions, it was necessary to define who lay outside that group.<ref name=Porton />

Some Tannaim show a positive attitude towards the gentiles. [[Joshua ben Hananiah]] believed that there are righteous men amongst the gentiles who will enter the world to come. He believed that except for the descendants of the [[Amalek]]s, the rest of the gentiles will adopt [[monotheism]] and the righteous among them will escape [[Gehenna]].<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com"/>

Other rabbinical writings show more hostility towards gentiles which needs to be understood in the context of frequent persecution of the Jews in this period. The most famous and extreme of the anti-gentile teachers is [[Simeon bar Yochai]]. He is often quoted by [[antisemites]]<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com"/> in his sayings: "The best among the Gentiles deserves to be killed", "The most pious woman is addicted to sorcery" and "The best of snakes ought to have its head crushed".<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com"/> Such extreme views can be explained by the sage's life experience: he witnessed his teacher being tortured to death,<ref name="Schwarz2008">{{cite book|author=Sidney Schwarz|title=Judaism and Justice: The Jewish Passion to Repair the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnUTcPa3YwQC&pg=PA73|year=2008|publisher=Jewish Lights Publishing|isbn=978-1-58023-353-8|page=73}}</ref> and became a fugitive after speaking out against Roman oppression.<ref name="Cohen1987">{{cite book|author=J. Simcha Cohen|title=Intermarriage and Conversion: A Halakhic Solution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pq3tOK5rdYYC&pg=PA77|year=1987|publisher=KTAV Publishing House, Inc.|isbn=978-0-88125-125-8|page=77}}</ref> Later commentators have limited this teaching to idolators and only at times of war.

[[Eliezer ben Hurcanus]] writes that the mind of every gentile is always intent upon [[idolatry]].<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com">{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6585-gentile|title=GENTILE - JewishEncyclopedia.com|website=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> He believed that gentiles only perform [[animal sacrifice]] to make a name for themselves. He further believed that gentiles have no share in the [[world to come]].

[[Eleazar of Modi'im]] wrote that Jews, when guilty of the same sin as gentiles, will not enter [[Hell#Judaism|hell]] whereas the gentiles will.<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com"/> [[Eleazar ben Azariah]] believed that the rulings performed by a gentile court are not valid for Jews. [[Rabbi Akiva]] believed that Israel's monotheism is far superior to the ever-changing beliefs of the gentiles. [[Jose the Galilean]] criticizes Israel for inconsistency compared to the faithfulness of the gentiles to their ancestral beliefs. He believed the good deeds of the gentiles will be rewarded as well.

=== Later sages ===
[[Rav Ashi]] believed that a Jew who sells a gentile property adjacent to a Jewish property should be [[Herem (censure)|excommunicated]]. The violation of Jewish women by gentile men was so frequent{{cn|date=April 2024}} that the rabbis declared that a woman raped by a gentile should not be divorced from her husband, as Torah says: "The Torah outlawed the issue of a gentile as that of a beast."<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com"/> A gentile midwife was not to be employed for fear of the poisoning of the baby. The gentiles should be dealt with caution in cases of using them as witness in a criminal or civil suit. The gentile does not honor his promises like that of a Jew. The laws of the Torah were not to be revealed to the gentiles, for the knowledge of these laws might give gentiles an advantage in dealing with Jews. [[Shimon ben Lakish]] wrote that "A gentile who observes Sabbath deserves death".<ref name="jewishencyclopedia.com"/>

=== In modern times ===
Under [[Halakha|rabbinic law]], a modern-day gentile is only required to observe the [[Seven Laws of Noah]], but Jews are required to observe [[Mosaic law]]. During periods of decreased animosity between Jews and gentiles, some of the rabbinic laws against fellowship and fraternization were relaxed; for example, [[Maimonides]] was the personal physician of [[Saladin]]. Even though most contemporary rabbinic schools are not as hostile to Gentiles as Medieval rabbinic schools were{{clarify|date=April 2024}}, some [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] rabbinic schools hold extremely xenophobic views. For example, scholars from the [[Zionism|Zionist]] [[Mercaz HaRav|HaRav Kook]] [[yeshiva]] are schooled in the doctrine that Jews and gentiles have different kinds of souls. One of the yeshiva's scholars, [[David Bar-Hayim]], published a paper in 1989 in which he explained the doctrine, entitled "Yisrael Nikraim Adam" (Israel is called ‘Man’). In his conclusion, Bar-Hayim writes:
{{quote|There is no escaping the facts: the Torah of Israel makes a clear distinction between a Jew, who is defined as "Man," and a Gentile. This distinction is expressed in a long list of [[Halakha|Halachic]] laws, be they monetary laws, the laws of the Temple, capital laws or others. Even one who is not an erudite Torah scholar is obligated to recognize this simple fact; it cannot be erased or obscured ... One who carefully studies the sources cited previously will realize the abysmal difference between the concepts "Jew" and "Gentile" -- and consequently, he will understand why Halacha differentiates between them.<ref>Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims By James L. Heft, Reuven Firestone, Omid Safi, Oxford University Press, USA, 2011, p. 163.</ref><ref>"Yisrael Nikraim Adam", Tzfiyah, v. 3, 1989, pp. 45-73.</ref>}}

Bar-Chayim further quotes [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] (1865–1935), founder of the yeshiva and the first [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] chief rabbi of British [[Mandatory Palestine]]:
{{quote|The difference between the Jewish soul, in all its independence, inner desires, longings, character and standing, and the soul of all the Gentiles, on all of their levels, is greater and deeper than the difference between the soul of a man and the soul of an animal, for the difference in the latter case is one of quantity, while the difference in the first case is one of essential quality.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Daat Emet: Gentiles in Halacha|url = http://www.daatemet.org.il/daathalacha/en_gentiles1.html|website = www.daatemet.org.il|access-date = 2015-12-25}} citing ''Orot Yisrael'' chapter 5, article 10 (p. 156)</ref>}}

Similar anti-gentile remarks have been expressed by the late chief Sephardi Rabbi [[Ovadia Yosef]], in which he stated in a sermon in 2010 that "The sole purpose of Gentiles is to serve Jews". He said that gentiles served a divine purpose: "Why are Gentiles needed? They will work, they will plow, they will reap. We will sit like an effendi and eat. That is why Gentiles were created.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/5-of-ovadia-yosefs-most-controversial-quotations/|title=5 of Ovadia Yosef's most controversial quotations|website=[[The Times of Israel]]}}</ref> These remarks by Yosef were sharply criticized by many Jewish organizations such as the [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL) and [[American Jewish Committee]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/adl-slams-shas-spiritual-leader-for-saying-non-jews-were-born-to-serve-jews-1.320235|title=ADL Slams Shas Spiritual Leader for Saying non-Jews 'Were Born to Serve Jews'|first1=Natasha|last1=Mozgovaya|first2=Haaretz|last2=Service|date=20 October 2010|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref>

Those who hold these views do not necessarily support any sort of harm to non-Jews. Rav Ovadia Yosef, himself, condemned those who vandalized Arab property, as did the vast majority of Orthodox leaders.

Many Orthodox schools have expressed more humanistic views. Rav Aharon Lichtenstein, Rosh Yeshivah of Gush, for example, strongly opposed what he saw as racist attitudes among certain segments of Religious Zionism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-22 |title=The dilemma of modern Orthodoxy & Religious Zionism: A tribute to Rabbi Aharon Lichtenstein zt''l |url=https://www.jpost.com/blogs/on-the-front-lines-with-rav-shmuly/the-dilemma-of-modern-orthodoxy-and-religious-zionism-a-tribute-to-rabbi-aharon-lichtenstein-ztl-398934 |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en}}</ref> 

Jewish philosopher and professor [[Menachem Kellner]] criticizes the assumption of some Orthodox Jews that there is an "ontological divide between Jews and Gentiles", which he believes is contrary to what the Torah teaches.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishideas.org/article/orthodoxy-and-gentile-problem |title=Orthodoxy and "The Gentile Problem" |last=Kellner |first=Menachem |date=Spring 2016 |website=[[Institute for Jewish Ideas and Ideals]] |publisher=[[Marc D. Angel]] |access-date=1 June 2020}}</ref>

=== In Kabbalah ===
Some [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] writings suggest a distinction between the souls of the gentiles and the souls of the Jews. These writings describe three levels, elements, or qualities of soul:<ref name=":1">''Qabbalistic Magic: Talismans, Psalms, Amulets, and the Practice of High Ritual''. Salomo Baal-Shem, Inner Traditions / Bear & Co, 2013, Chapter 5.</ref>
* ''Nefesh'' (נפש): the lower part, or "animal part", of the soul. It is linked to instincts and bodily cravings. This part of the soul is provided at birth.
* ''Ruach'' (רוח): the middle soul, the "spirit". It contains the moral virtues and the ability to distinguish between good and evil.
* ''Neshamah'' (נשמה): the higher soul, or "super-soul". This separates man from all other life-forms. It is related to the intellect and allows man to enjoy and benefit from the afterlife. It allows one to have some awareness of the existence and presence of God.

Other descriptions of the soul add two more levels Chaya and Yechida.

There has been debate among the [[kabbalist]]s on whether gentiles access the mystical knowledge ([[Daat]]). [[Isaac Luria]], prominent kabbalist, wrote:{{quote|Israel possesses the three levels of soul, nefesh, ruah, neshamah,—from holiness... the gentiles possess only the level of nefesh from the feminine side of the shells... for the souls of the nations (gentiles), come from the [[Qlippoth]], are called evil and not good' since they are created without knowledge (Daat). The animal soul of man is the good and evil inclination. The soul of the gentiles comes from the three shells: wind, cloud and fire, all of them evil.<ref>Judaism and other religions: Model of Understanding, Alan Brill, Springer Books, 2010, p. 165</ref>}}

[[Moses de León]], presumed author of the main kabbalistic work ''[[Sefer Ha-Zohar]]'', agrees with this assumption:{{quote|You know that all of the gentiles (goyim) and all of their matters are in the category of the impure... you must know and discern that the gentiles come from the side of impurity, for the souls of the gentiles derive from the side of impurity <ref>Does Judaism condone violence?Holiness and ethics in the Jewish tradition, Alan L. Mittleman, Princeton University Press, 2018, P. 71</ref>}}

The following passage in the ''[[Zohar]]'' reaffirms this idea:{{quote|Said Rabbi Hiyya: If this is true (that neshamah is acquired through following the Torah) is it so that gentiles have no neshamah, only the living nefesh? Rabbi Yohannan said: That is correct.<ref>''The Mystic Quest: An introduction to Jewish mysticism'', David S. Ariel, Jason Aaronson Inc, 1977, p. 132 {{ISBN?}}</ref>}}

The view that gentiles only possess bestial souls was more popularized by the main kabbalistic text of [[hasidic]] movement, the [[Tanya (Judaism)|Tanya]] (or Likkutei Amarim). Rabbi [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], the founder of the [[Chabad]] [[hasidic]] dynasty, claims that Jews like gentiles possess a vital animal soul, but the animal soul of the Jew comes from the fourth husk (Qlippoth nogah), while the animal soul of the gentiles comes from the three lower impure husks (Qlippoth Tumaot). Thus nothing gentiles do can elevate them to the level of holiness, their soul remains trapped in the unholy world of the impure Qlippoth. <ref>''Does Judaism condone violence?Holiness and ethics in the Jewish tradition'', Alan L. Mittleman, Princeton University Press, 2018, p. 72 {{ISBN?}}</ref>

However, other Kabbalists like [[Abraham Abulafia]] believed that higher levels of soul are to some extent accessible to gentiles.<ref>''The Serpent Kills or the Serpent Gives Life: The Kabbalist Abraham Abulafia's Response to Christianity'', Robert J. Sagerman, Brill, 2011, p. 70 {{ISBN?}}</ref>