Editing Funk (section)

== Characteristics ==

=== Rhythm and tempo===
[[File:Meters Wikepedia.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|The [[rhythm section]] of a funk band—the electric bass, drums, electric guitar and keyboards—is the heartbeat of the funk sound. Pictured here are [[the Meters]].]]
Like soul, funk is based on [[dance music]], so it has a strong "rhythmic role".<ref name=Learn254>Learn Guitar: From Beginner to Pro. Book Sales, 2017. p. 254</ref> The sound of funk is as much based on the "spaces between the notes" as the notes that are played; as such, rests between notes are important.<ref name=Gress>{{cite web |url=https://www.guitarplayer.com/technique/10-ways-to-play-like-prince |title=10 Ways to Play Guitar Like Prince |last=Gress |first=Jesse |date=21 April 2016 |website=guitarplayer.com |publisher=Guitar Player |access-date=13 April 2019 }}</ref> While there are rhythmic similarities between funk and [[disco]], funk has a "central dance beat that's slower, sexier and more syncopated than disco", and funk rhythm section musicians add more "subtextures", complexity and "personality" onto the main beat than a programmed synth-based disco ensemble.<ref name= Himes>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1979/08/01/on-the-difference-between-funk-and-disco/25fcc5c6-1a13-4d64-9e99-a67dbd004b9a/?noredirect=on |title=On the Difference Between Funk and Disco |last=Himes |first=Geoffrey |date=1 August 1979 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=13 April 2019 }}</ref>

Before funk, most [[pop music]] was based on sequences of eighth notes, because the fast tempos made further subdivisions of the beat infeasible.<ref name="stewart1"/> The innovation of funk was that by using slower tempos (surely influenced by the revival of blues in the early 1960s), funk "created space for further rhythmic subdivision, so a bar of 4/4 could now accommodate possible 16  note  placements."<ref name="stewart1"/>  Specifically, by having the guitar and drums play in "motoring" sixteenth-note rhythms, it created the opportunity for the other instruments to play "more syncopated, broken-up style", which facilitated a move to more "liberated" basslines. Together, these "interlocking parts" created a "hypnotic" and "danceable feel".<ref name="stewart1"/>

A great deal of funk is rhythmically based on a two-[[cell (music)|celled]] onbeat/offbeat structure, which originated in [[sub-Saharan African music traditions]]. New Orleans appropriated the bifurcated structure from the Afro-Cuban mambo and conga in the late 1940s, and made it its own.<ref name="autogenerated1979">Palmer, Robert (1979: 14), ''A Tale of Two Cities: Memphis Rock and New Orleans Roll''. Brooklyn.</ref> New Orleans funk, as it was called, gained international acclaim largely because James Brown's rhythm section used it to great effect.<ref name = pp>Stewart, Alexander (2000: 293), "Funky Drummer: New Orleans, James Brown and the Rhythmic Transformation of American Popular Music", ''Popular Music'', v. 19, n. 3, October 2000, pp.&nbsp;293–318.</ref>

[[File:Funk.tiff|thumb|center|upright=1.8|Simple kick and snare funk motif. The kick first sounds two onbeats, which are then answered by two offbeats. The snare sounds the backbeat.]]

=== Harmony ===
[[File:Thirteenth chord collapsed.png|thumb|A [[thirteenth chord]] (E 13, which also contains a flat 7th and a 9th) {{Audio|Thirteenth chord collapsed.mid|Play}}]]
Funk uses the same richly colored [[extended chord]]s found in [[bebop]] jazz, such as minor chords with added sevenths and elevenths, or dominant seventh chords with altered ninths. Some examples of chords used in funk are minor eleventh chords (e.g., F minor 11th); dominant seventh with added sharp ninth and a suspended fourth (e.g., C7 (#9) sus 4); dominant ninth chords (e.g., F9); and minor sixth chords (e.g., C minor 6).<ref name=Gress/> The six-ninth chord is used in funk (e.g., F 6/9); it is a major chord with an added sixth and ninth.<ref name=Gress/> In funk, minor seventh chords are more common than minor triads because minor triads were found to be too thin-sounding.<ref>Studley, Greg. ''Essentials of Rhythm Guitar: Complete Guide''. Jun. 21, 2016.</ref> Some of the best known and most skillful soloists in funk have [[jazz]] backgrounds. Trombonist [[Fred Wesley]] and saxophonists [[Pee Wee Ellis]] and [[Maceo Parker]] are among the most notable musicians in the funk music genre, having worked with [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]], [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]] and [[Prince (musician)|Prince]].

Unlike bebop jazz, with its complex, rapid-fire chord changes, funk often uses a static single-chord or two-chord [[vamp (music)|vamp]] (often alternating a minor seventh chord and a related dominant seventh chord, such as A minor to D7) during all or part of a song, with [[Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony|melodo-harmonic movement]] and a complex, driving rhythmic feel. Even though some funk songs are mainly one-chord vamps, the rhythm section musicians may embellish this chord by moving it up or down a semitone or a tone to create chromatic passing chords. For example, the verse section of "[[Play That Funky Music]]" (by [[Wild Cherry (band)|Wild Cherry]]) mainly uses an E ninth chord, but it also uses F#9 and F9.<ref>Serna, Desi. ''Guitar Theory For Dummies: Book + Online Video & Audio Instruction''. John Wiley & Sons, Sep. 24, 2013. p. 156</ref>

The chords used in funk songs typically imply a [[Dorian mode|Dorian]] or [[Mixolydian mode]], as opposed to the major or natural minor tonalities of most popular music. Melodic content was derived by mixing these modes with the [[blues scale]]. In the 1970s, jazz music drew upon funk to create a new subgenre of [[jazz-funk]], which can be heard in recordings by [[Miles Davis]] (''[[Live-Evil (Miles Davis album)|Live-Evil]]'', ''[[On the Corner]]''), and [[Herbie Hancock]] (''[[Head Hunters]]'').

===Improvisation===
Funk continues the African musical tradition of [[improvisation]], in that in a funk band, the group would typically "feel" when to change, by "jamming" and "grooving", even in the studio recording stage, which might only be based on the skeleton framework for each song.<ref>Vincent, Rickey. ''Funk: The Music, The People, and The Rhythm of The One''. St. Martin's Press, Nov. 4, 2014; p. 18</ref> Funk uses "collective improvisation", in which musicians at rehearsals would have what was metaphorically a musical "conversation", an approach which extended to the onstage performances.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. pp. 51–52</ref>

===Instruments===
====Bass guitar====
[[File:Bootsy Collins-04.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Bootsy Collins performing in 1996 with a star-shaped bass]]
Funk creates an intense [[Groove (popular music)|groove]] by using strong guitar riffs and [[bassline]]s played on [[electric bass]]. Like [[Motown]] recordings, funk songs use basslines as the centerpiece of songs. Indeed, funk has been called the style in which the bassline is most prominent in the songs,<ref>{{cite book|last = Archard|first = Chuck |title = Building Bass Lines|publisher = Alfred Music Publishing|date = 1998|isbn = 9780882849218}}</ref> with the bass playing the "hook" of the song.<ref name=Boomer25>Boomer, Tim; Berry, Mick. ''The Bassist's Bible: How to Play Every Bass Style from Afro-Cuban to Zydeco''. See Sharp Press, Jul. 1, 2009. p. 25</ref> Early funk basslines used syncopation (typically syncopated eighth notes), but with the addition of more of a "driving feel" than in New Orleans funk, and they used [[blues scale]] notes along with the major third above the root.<ref>Boomer, Tim; Berry, Mick. ''The Bassist's Bible: How to Play Every Bass Style from Afro-Cuban to Zydeco''. See Sharp Press, Jul. 1, 2009. p. 22</ref> Later funk basslines use sixteenth note syncopation, blues scales, and repetitive patterns, often with leaps of an octave or a larger interval.<ref name=Boomer25/>
[[File:Funky Slap Bass line.ogg|thumb|right|200px|This funky bassline includes percussive slapping, rhythmic ghost notes, and glissando effects.]]
Funk basslines emphasize repetitive patterns, locked-in grooves, continuous playing, and [[Slapping (music)|slap and popping]] bass. Slapping and popping uses a mixture of thumb-slapped low notes (also called "thumped") and finger "popped" (or plucked) high notes, allowing the bass to have a drum-like rhythmic role, which became a distinctive element of funk. Notable slap and funky players include [[Bernard Edwards]] ([[Chic (band)|Chic]]), [[Robert "Kool" Bell]], Mark Adams ([[Slave (band)|Slave]]), Johnny Flippin ([[Fatback Band|Fatback]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/johnny-flippin-mn0001326101|title=Johnny Flippin &#124; Credits|website=[[AllMusic]]|accessdate=February 25, 2021}}</ref> and [[Bootsy Collins]].<ref name=Overthrow>Overthrow, David. ''Complete Electric Bass Method: Mastering Electric Bass''. Alfred Music</ref> While slap and funky is important, some influential bassists who play funk, such as [[Rocco Prestia]] (from [[Tower of Power]]), did not use the approach, and instead used a typical fingerstyle method based on [[James Jamerson]]'s [[Motown]] playing style.<ref name=Overthrow/> [[Larry Graham]] from [[Sly and the Family Stone]] is an influential bassist.<ref name=Dickens>Dickens, Bill "the Buddha"; Rock, Bobby. ''Funk Bass and Beyond''. Alfred Music Publishing, 2003</ref>

Funk bass has an "earthy, percussive kind of feel", in part due to the use of muted, rhythmic [[ghost note]]s<ref name=Dickens/> (also called "dead notes").<ref name=Overthrow/> Some funk bass players use electronic [[effects unit]]s to alter the tone of their instrument, such as "envelope filters" (an [[auto-wah]] effect that creates a "gooey, slurpy, quacky, and syrupy" sound)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.premierguitar.com/articles/how-to-funk-up-your-bass-1 |title=How to Funk Up Your Bass |last=Berkowitz |first=Dan |date=14 January 2008 |website=premierguitar.com |publisher=Premier Guitar |access-date=9 April 2019 }}</ref> and imitate keyboard synthesizer bass tones<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dummies.com/art-center/music/bass-guitar/effects-pedals-for-your-bass-guitar/ |title=Effects Pedals for Your Bass Guitar |last=Pfeiffer |first=Patrick |website=dummies.com |publisher=Dummies |access-date=9 April 2019 }}</ref> (e.g., the [[Mutron]] envelope filter)<ref name=Boomer25/> and overdriven [[fuzz bass]] effects, which are used to create the "classic fuzz tone that sounds like old school Funk records".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.guitarinteractivemagazine.com/issues/issue-50/reviews/electro-harmonix-bass-blogger-bass-metaphors-and-bass-micro-synthesizer/ |title=Electro-Harmonix Bass Blogger, Bass Metaphors and Bass Micro Synthesizer |last=Veall |first=Dan |work=Guitar Interactive Magazine |access-date=9 April 2019 |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801000238/https://www.guitarinteractivemagazine.com/issues/issue-50/reviews/electro-harmonix-bass-blogger-bass-metaphors-and-bass-micro-synthesizer/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other effects that are used include the [[flanger]] and [[bass chorus]].<ref name=Boomer25/> Collins also used a [[Mu-Tron#Mu-tron Octave Divider|Mu-Tron Octave Divider]], an octave pedal that, like the Octavia pedal popularized by [[Jimi Hendrix|Hendrix]], can double a note an octave above and below to create a "futuristic and fat low-end sound".<ref name="dearcangelis1">{{cite web |url=https://reverb.com/ca/news/the-essential-gear-of-parliament-slash-funkadelic |title=The Essential Gear of Parliament/Funkadelic |last=DeArcangelis |first=Christopher |date=6 January 2017 |website=reverb.com |publisher=Reverb |access-date=4 May 2019 }}</ref>

====Drums====
Funk drumming creates a groove by emphasizing the drummer's "feel and emotion", which including "occasional tempo fluctuations", the use of [[Swing music|swing]] feel in some songs (e.g., "Cissy Strut" by [[The Meters]] and "I'll Take You There" by [[The Staple Singers]], which have a half-swung feel), and less use of [[fill (music)|fills]] (as they can lessen the groove).<ref name=Schlueter>{{cite web |url=https://reverb.com/ca/news/10-old-school-funk-grooves-every-drummer-should-know |title=10 Old School Funk Grooves Every Drummer Should Know |last=Schlueter |first=Brad |date=13 May 2016 |website=reverb.com |publisher=Reverb |access-date=9 April 2019 }}</ref> Drum fills are "few and economical", to ensure that the drumming stays "in the pocket", with a steady tempo and groove.<ref>Burns, Roy; Farris, Joey. ''Studio Funk Drumming: A Professional Workbook''. Alfred Music, 1981. p. 6</ref> These playing techniques are supplemented by a set-up for the drum kit that often includes muffled [[bass drum]]s and toms and tightly tuned snare drums.<ref name=Schlueter/> [[Double bass drumming]] sounds are often done by funk drummers with a single pedal, an approach which "accents the second note... [and] deadens the drumhead's resonance", which gives a short, muffled bass drum sound.<ref name=Schlueter/>
[[File:Cissy Strut drum groove.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The drum groove from "[[Cissy Strut]]"]]

James Brown used two drummers such as Clyde Stubblefield and John 'Jabo' Starks in recording and soul shows.<ref name="autogenerated53">Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 53</ref> By using two drummers, the JB band was able to maintain a "solid syncopated" rhythmic sound, which contributed to the band's distinctive "Funky Drummer" rhythm.<ref name="autogenerated53"/>

In [[Tower of Power]] drummer [[David Garibaldi (musician)|David Garibaldi]]'s playing, there are many [[ghost note]]s and [[rim shot]]s.<ref name=Schlueter/> A key part of the funk drumming style is using the hi-hat, with opening and closing the hi-hats during playing (to create "splash" accent effects) being an important approach.<ref>Burns, Roy; Farris, Joey. ''Studio Funk Drumming: A Professional Workbook''. Alfred Music, 1981. pp. 5–6</ref> Two-handed sixteenth notes on the hi-hats, sometimes with a degree of swing feel, is used in funk.<ref name=Schlueter/>

Jim Payne states that funk drumming uses a "wide-open" approach to improvisation around rhythmic ideas from Latin music, [[ostinato]]s, that are repeated "with only slight variations", an approach which he says causes the "mesmerizing" nature of funk.<ref name="autogenerated7">Payne, Jim. ''Complete Funk Drumming Book''. Mel Bay Publications, Feb. 9, 2011. p. 7-8</ref> Payne states that funk can be thought of as "rock played in a more syncopated manner", particularly with the bass drum, which plays syncopated eighth-note and sixteenth-note patterns that were innovated by drummer Clive Williams (with [[Joe Tex]]); [[George Brown (musician)|George Brown]] (with [[Kool & the Gang]]) and James "Diamond" Williams (with [[The Ohio Players]]).<ref>Payne, Jim. ''Complete Funk Drumming Book''. Mel Bay Publications, Feb. 9, 2011. p. 8</ref> As with rock, the snare provides [[backbeat]]s in most funk (albeit with additional soft ghost notes).<ref name="autogenerated7"/>

====Electric guitar====
In funk, guitarists often mix playing chords of a short duration (nicknamed "stabs") with faster rhythms and riffs.<ref name=Learn254/> Guitarists playing rhythmic parts often play sixteenth notes, including with percussive ghost notes.<ref name=Learn254/> Chord extensions are favored, such as ninth chords.<ref name=Learn254/> Typically, funk uses "two interlocking [electric] guitar parts", with a [[rhythm guitar]]ist and a "tenor guitarist" who plays single notes. The two guitarists trade off their lines to create a "[[Call and response (music)|call-and-response]], intertwined pocket."<ref name=Bortnick>{{cite web |url=https://www.premierguitar.com/articles/Rhythm_Rules_Call_and_Response_Funk_Guitar |title=Rhythm Rules: Call-and-Response Funk Guitar |last=Bortnick |first=Avi |date=12 March 2013 |website=premierguitar.com |publisher=Premier Guitar |access-date=13 April 2019 }}</ref> If a band only has one guitarist, this effect may be recreated by [[overdubbing]] in the studio, or, in a live show, by having a single guitarist play both parts, to the degree that this is possible.<ref name=Bortnick/>

In funk bands, guitarists typically play in a percussive style, using a style of picking called the "chank" or "chicken scratch",  in which the guitar strings are pressed lightly against the [[fingerboard]] and then quickly released just enough to get a muted "scratching" sound that is produced by rapid rhythmic strumming of the opposite hand near the [[Bridge (instrument)|bridge]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.musical-u.com/learn/the-funky-ones-what-makes-funk-guitar-what-it-is/|title=The Funky Ones — What Makes Funk Guitar What It Is - Musical U|date=August 15, 2016|newspaper=Musical U|access-date=October 24, 2018}}</ref> Early examples of that technique used on rhythm and blues are heard on the [[Johnny Otis]] song "[[Willie and the Hand Jive]]" in 1957, with future James Brown band guitar player [[Jimmy Nolen]]. The technique can be broken down into three approaches: the "chika", the "chank" and the "choke". With the "chika" comes a muted sound of strings being hit against the fingerboard; "chank" is a staccato attack done by releasing the chord with the fretting hand after strumming it; and "choking" generally uses all the strings being strummed and heavily muted.<ref name=Gress/> 
[[File:NileRodgers2012.png|thumb|left|200px|Guitarist [[Nile Rodgers]] is best known for his performances with [[Chic (band)|Chic]].]]

The result of these factors was a rhythm guitar sound that seemed to float somewhere between the low-end thump of the [[Bass guitar|electric bass]] and the cutting tone of the [[Snare drum|snare]] and [[hi-hat]]s, with a rhythmically melodic feel that fell deep in the pocket. Guitarist [[Jimmy Nolen]], longtime guitarist for James Brown, developed this technique. On Brown's "[[Give It Up or Turnit a Loose]]" (1969), however, Jimmy Nolen's guitar part has a bare bones tonal structure. The pattern of attack-points is the emphasis, not the pattern of pitches. The guitar is used the way that an African drum, or idiophone would be used. Nolen created a "clean, trebly tone" by using "hollow-body [[jazz guitar]]s with single-coil P-90 pickups" plugged into a [[Fender Twin]] Reverb amp with the mid turned down low and the treble turned up high.<ref name="bogdal1">{{cite web |url=https://www.stringjoy.com/funk-guitar-history-techniques-gear/  |title=Funk Guitar: The History, Techniques and Gear Behind the Groove |last=Bogdal |first=John |date=20 July 2017 |website=stringjoy.com|publisher=StringJoy |access-date=19 April 2019 }}</ref>

Funk guitarists playing rhythm guitar generally avoid [[distortion (music)|distortion]] effects and amp overdrive to get a clean sound, and given the importance of a crisp, high sound, [[Fender Stratocaster]]s and [[Fender Telecaster|Telecasters]] were widely used for their cutting treble tone.<ref name="bogdal1"/> The mids are often cut by guitarists to help the guitar sound different from the [[horn section]], keyboards and other instruments.<ref name="bogdal1"/> Given the focus on providing a rhythmic groove, and the lack of emphasis on instrumental guitar melodies and [[guitar solo]]s, sustain is not sought out by funk rhythm guitarists.<ref name="bogdal1"/> Funk rhythm guitarists use [[Dynamic range compression|compressor]] volume-control effects to enhance the sound of muted notes, which boosts the "clucking" sound and adds "percussive excitement to funk rhythms" (an approach used by [[Nile Rodgers]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.guitarplayer.com/technique/licks-tricks-and-riffs-for-a-variety-of-effects |title=Licks, Tricks and Riffs for a Variety of Effects |last=Kolb |first=Tom |date=20 March 2019 |website=guitarplayer.com |publisher=Guitar Player |access-date=19 April 2019 |archive-date=April 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419234724/https://www.guitarplayer.com/technique/licks-tricks-and-riffs-for-a-variety-of-effects |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Guitarist [[Eddie Hazel]] from [[Funkadelic]] is notable for his solo improvisation (particularly for the solo on "[[Maggot Brain]]") and guitar riffs, the tone of which was shaped by a [[Maestro FZ-1 Fuzz-Tone]] pedal.<ref name="dearcangelis1"/> Hazel, along with guitarist [[Ernie Isley]] of [[the Isley Brothers]], was influenced by [[Jimi Hendrix]]'s improvised, wah-wah infused solos. Ernie Isley was tutored at an early age by Hendrix, when Hendrix was a part of the Isley Brothers backing band and temporarily lived in the Isleys' household. Funk guitarists use the [[Wah-wah pedal|wah-wah]] sound effect along with muting the notes to create a percussive sound for their guitar riffs. The [[phaser (effect)|phaser]] effect is often used in funk and R&B guitar playing for its filter sweeping sound effect, an example being the [[Isley Brothers]]' song "[[Who's That Lady]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://flypaper.soundfly.com/play/guitar-pedal-tone/ |title=Finding Your Ideal Guitar Tone: Guitar Pedals |last=Anbar   |first=Elyadeen|date=10 October 2015 |website=flypaper.soundfly.com |publisher=Flypaper |access-date=19 April 2015 }}</ref> [[Michael Hampton]], another P-Funk guitarist, was able to play Hazel's virtuosic solo on "Maggot Brain", using a solo approach that added in string bends and Hendrix-style [[feedback (music)|feedback]].<ref name="dearcangelis1"/>

====Keyboards====
[[File:Isaac hayes 1973.jpg|thumb|right|170px|[[Isaac Hayes]] playing keyboards in 1973]]
A range of keyboard instruments are used in funk. Acoustic piano is used in funk, including in "September" by [[Earth Wind & Fire]] and "[[Will It Go Round in Circles]]" by [[Billy Preston]]. The electric piano is used on songs such as [[Herbie Hancock]]'s "Chameleon" (a [[Fender Rhodes]]) and "Mercy, Mercy, Mercy" by [[Joe Zawinul]] (a [[Wurlitzer]]). The [[clavinet]] is used for its percussive tone, and it can be heard in songs such as [[Stevie Wonder]]'s "[[Superstition (song)|Superstition]]" and "[[Higher Ground (Stevie Wonder song)|Higher Ground]]" and Bill Withers' "[[Use Me (Bill Withers song)|Use Me]]". The [[Hammond B-3 organ]] is used in funk, in songs such as "Cissy Strut" by [[The Meters]] and "Love the One You're With" (with Aretha Franklin singing and Billy Preston on keyboards).

[[Bernie Worrell]]'s range of keyboards from his recordings with [[Parliament Funkadelic]] demonstrate the wide range of keyboards used in funk, as they include the Hammond organ ("Funky Woman", "Hit It and Quit It", "Wars of Armageddon"); [[Rocky Mount Instruments|RMI electric piano]] ("I Wanna Know If It's Good to You?", "[[Free Your Mind... and Your Ass Will Follow|Free Your Mind]]", "Loose Booty"); acoustic piano ("Funky Dollar Bill", "Jimmy's Got a Little Bit of Bitch in Him"); clavinet ("Joyful Process", "Up for the Down Stroke", "Red Hot Mama"); [[Minimoog]] synthesizer ("Atmosphere", "[[Flash Light (song)|Flash Light]]", "Aqua Boogie", "Knee Deep", "Let's Take It to the Stage"); and ARP string ensemble synth ("[[Chocolate City (album)|Chocolate City]]", "[[Give Up the Funk (Tear the Roof off the Sucker)]]", "Undisco Kidd").

Synthesizers were used in funk both to add to the deep sound of the electric bass, or even to replace the electric bass altogether in some songs.<ref name="autogenerated51">Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 51</ref> Funk synthesizer bass, most often a [[Minimoog]], was used because it could create layered sounds and new electronic tones that were not feasible on electric bass.<ref name="autogenerated51"/>

===Vocals and lyrics===
In the 1970s, funk used many of the same vocal styles that were used in African-American music in the 1960s, including singing influences from blues, gospel, jazz and doo-wop.<ref name="autogenerated53"/> Like these other African-American styles, funk used "[y]ells, shouts, hollers, moans, humming, and melodic riffs", along with styles such as [[Call and response (music)|call and response]] and narration of stories (like the African oral tradition approach).<ref>Lacy, Travis K., "Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 48</ref> The call and response in funk can be between the lead singer and the band members who act as [[backup vocal]]ists.<ref name="autogenerated75">Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 75</ref>

As funk emerged from soul, the vocals in funk share soul's approach; however, funk vocals tend to be "more punctuated, energetic, rhythmically percussive[,] and less embellished" with ornaments, and the vocal lines tend to resemble horn parts and have "pushed" rhythms.<ref>Harrison, Scott D.; O'Bryan, Jessica. ''Teaching Singing in the 21st Century''. Springer, May 14, 2014. p. 49</ref> Funk bands such as [[Earth, Wind & Fire]] have [[harmony vocal]] parts.<ref name=Himes/> Songs like "[[Super Bad (song)|Super Bad]]" by James Brown included "double-voice" along with "yells, shouts and screams".<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 21</ref> Funk singers used a "black aesthetic" to perform that made use of "colorful and lively exchange of gestures, facial expressions, body posture, and vocal phrases" to create an engaging performance.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 65</ref>
[[File:Charlie Wilson-photo-by-raymond-boyd.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Singer [[Charlie Wilson (singer)|Charlie Wilson]]]]
The lyrics in funk music addressed issues faced by the African American community in the United States during the 1970s, which arose due to the move away from an industrial, working-class economy to an information economy, which harmed the Black working class.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for
AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 5</ref> Funk songs by The Ohio Players, Earth, Wind & Fire, and James Brown raised issues faced by lower-income Blacks in their song lyrics, such as poor "economic conditions and themes of poor inner-city life in the black communities".<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for
AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 6</ref>

The Funkadelic song "[[One Nation Under A Groove]]" (1978) is about the challenges that Blacks overcame during the 1960s civil rights movement, and it includes an exhortation for Blacks in the 1970s to capitalize on the new "social and political opportunities" that had become available in the 1970s.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 26</ref> The [[Isley Brothers]] song "Fight the Power" (1975) has a political message.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 57</ref> Parliament's song "Chocolate City" (1975) metaphorically refers to Washington, D.C., and other US cities that have a mainly Black population, and it draws attention to the potential power that Black voters wield and suggests that a Black President be considered in the future.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 29</ref>

The political themes of funk songs and the aiming of the messages to a Black audience echoed the new image of Blacks that was created in [[Blaxploitation]] films, which depicted "African-American men and women standing their ground and fighting for what was right".<ref name="autogenerated36">Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 36</ref> Both funk and Blaxploitation films addressed issues faced by Blacks and told stories from a Black perspective.<ref name="autogenerated36"/> Another link between 1970s funk and Blaxploitation films is that many of these films used funk soundtracks (e.g., [[Curtis Mayfield]] for ''[[Super Fly (1972 film)|Superfly]]''; James Brown and Fred Wesley for ''[[Black Caesar (film)|Black Caesar]]'' and [[War (American band)|War]] for ''[[Youngblood (1978 film)|Youngblood]]'').<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. pp. 55–56</ref>

Funk songs included metaphorical language that was understood best by listeners who were "familiar with the black aesthetic and [black] vernacular".<ref name="autogenerated66">Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 66</ref> For example, funk songs included expressions such as "shake your money maker", "funk yourself right out" and "move your boogie body".<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 72</ref> Another example is the use of "bad" in the song "Super Bad" (1970), which black listeners knew meant "good" or "great".<ref name="autogenerated75"/>

In the 1970s, to get around radio obscenity restrictions, funk artists would use words that sounded like non-allowed words and [[double entendre]]s to get around these restrictions.<ref name="citypages1">{{cite web |url=http://www.citypages.com/music/funks-five-most-ridiculous-lyrics-6629603 |title=Funk's five most ridiculous lyrics |publisher=City Pages |access-date=20 April 2019 }}</ref> For example, [[The Ohio Players]] had a song entitled "Fopp" which referred to "Fopp me right, don't you fopp me wrong/We'll be foppin' all night long...".<ref name="citypages1"/> Some funk songs used made-up words which suggested that they were "writing lyrics in a constant haze of marijuana smoke", such as Parliament's "[[Aqua Boogie (A Psychoalphadiscobetabioaquadoloop)]]", which includes words such as "bioaquadoloop".<ref name="citypages1" /> The mainstream white listener base was often not able to understand funk's lyrical messages, which contributed to funk's lack of popular music chart success with white audiences during the 1970s.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., "Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 56-57</ref>

===Other instruments===
[[Horn section]] arrangements with groups of brass instruments are often used in funk songs.<ref name=Himes/> Funk horn sections could include saxophone (often tenor sax), trumpet, trombone, and for larger horn sections, such as quintets and sextets, a baritone sax.<ref name="stewart1"/> Horn sections played "rhythmic and syncopated" parts, often with "offbeat phrases" that emphasize "rhythmic displacement".<ref name="stewart1"/> Funk song introductions are an important place for horn arrangements.<ref name="stewart1"/>

[[File:Earth Wind and Fire.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Funk [[horn section]]s typically include saxophones and trumpets. Larger horn sections often add a second instrument for one of the saxes or trumpets, and a trombone or bari sax may also be used. Pictured is the Earth, Wind and Fire horn section.]]

Funk horn sections performed in a "rhythmic percussive style" that mimicked the approach used by funk rhythm guitarists.<ref name="autogenerated48">Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 48</ref> Horn sections would "punctuate" the lyrics by playing in the spaces between vocals, using "short staccato rhythmic blast[s]".<ref name="autogenerated48"/> Notable funk horn players included [[Alfred "Pee Wee" Ellis|Alfred "PeeWee" Ellis]], trombonist [[Fred Wesley]], and alto sax player [[Maceo Parker]].<ref name="autogenerated48"/> Notable funk horn sections including the Phoenix Horns (with Earth, Wind & Fire), the Horny Horns (with Parliament), the Memphis Horns (with [[Isaac Hayes]]), and MFSB (with [[Curtis Mayfield]]).<ref name="autogenerated48"/>

The instruments in funk horn sections varied. If there were two horn players, it could be trumpet and sax, trumpet and trombone, or two saxes.<ref name="stewart1"/>  A standard horn trio would consist of trumpet, sax, and trombone, but trios of one trumpet with two saxes, or two trumpets with one sax, were also fairly common.<ref name="stewart1"/> A quartet would be set up the same as a standard horn trio, but with an extra trumpet, sax, or (less frequently) trombone player. Quintets would either be a trio of saxes (typically alto/tenor/baritone, or tenor/tenor/baritone) with a trumpet and a trombone, or a pair each of trumpets and saxes with one trombone. With six instruments, the horn section would usually be two trumpets, three saxes, and a trombone.<ref name="stewart1"/> 

Notable songs with funk horn sections include:
* "[[Cold Sweat]]" (James Brown & the Famous Flames), 1967
* "Superstition" (Stevie Wonder), 1972
* "Funky Stuff" (Kool & The Gang), 1973
* "What Is Hip?" (Tower of Power), 1973
* "[[Pick Up the Pieces (Average White Band song)|Pick Up the Pieces]]" (Average White Band)
* "[[Up For The Down Stroke]]" (Parliament), 1974
* "Hair" (Graham Central Station), 1974
* "[[Too Hot to Stop]]" (The Bar-Kays), 1976
* "[[Getaway (Earth, Wind & Fire song)|Getaway]]" (Earth, Wind & Fire), 1976

In bands or shows where hiring a horn section is not feasible, a keyboardist can play the horn parts on a synthesizer with brass patches; however, choosing an authentic-sounding synthesizer and brass patch is important.<ref name="stewart1"/> In the 2010s, with micro-MIDI synths, it may even have been possible to have another instrumentalist play the keyboard brass parts, thus enabling the keyboardist to continue to comp throughout the song.<ref name="stewart1"/>

===Costumes and style===
Funk bands in the 1970s adopted Afro-American fashion and style, including "[[Bell-bottoms|Bell-bottom pants]], platform shoes, hoop earring[s], Afros [hairstyles], leather vests,... beaded necklaces",<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 62</ref> [[dashiki]] shirts, jumpsuits and boots.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 68</ref> In contrast to earlier bands such as [[The Temptations]], which wore "matching suits" and "neat haircuts" to appeal to white mainstream audiences, funk bands adopted an "African spirit" in their outfits and style.<ref name="autogenerated66"/> [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]] and Parliament are known for their imaginative costumes and "freedom of dress", which included bedsheets acting as robes and capes.<ref>Lacy, Travis K., ""Funk is its own reward" : an analysis of selected lyrics in popular funk music of the 1970s" (2008). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library. Paper 22. p. 69</ref>