Editing French Wars of Religion (section)

== Background ==
[[File:John Calvin - Young.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|[[John Calvin]], whose ideas became central to French Protestantism]]

=== Introduction of Reformation ideas ===
[[Renaissance humanism]] began during the 14th century in Italy and arrived in France in the early 16th, coinciding with the rise of [[Protestantism in France]]. The movement emphasised the importance of ''[[ad fontes]]'', or study of original sources, and initially focused on the reconstruction of secular [[Koine Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]] texts. It later expanded into the reading, study and translation of works by the [[Church Fathers]] and the [[New Testament]], with a view to religious renewal and reform.{{Sfn|McGrath|1995|pp=39–43}} Humanist scholars argued [[exegesis|interpretation]] of the [[Bible]] required an ability to read the New Testament and [[Old Testament]]s in the original Greek and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], rather than relying on the 4th century Latin translation known as the "[[Vulgate]] Bible".{{Sfn|McGrath|1995|pp=122–124}}

In 1495, the Venetian [[Aldus Manutius]] began using the newly invented printing press to produce small, inexpensive, pocket editions of Greek, Latin, and vernacular literature, making knowledge in all disciplines available for the first time to a wide audience.{{Sfn|Spickard|Cragg|2005|pp= 158–160}} Cheap pamphlets and broadsides allowed theological and religious ideas to be disseminated at an unprecedented pace. In 1519, John Froben published a collection of works by [[Martin Luther]] and noted in his correspondence that 600 copies were being shipped to France and Spain and sold in [[Paris]].{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=275}}

[[File:Protestant France.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.0|16th-century religious geopolitics on a map of modern France
{{legend|#800080|Huguenot controlled}}
{{legend|#AA87DE|Contested}}
{{legend|#B3B3B3|Catholic controlled}}]]

In 1521, a group of reformers including [[Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples|Jacques Lefèvre]] and [[Guillaume Briçonnet (Bishop of Meaux)|Guillaume Briçonnet]], recently appointed [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Meaux|bishop of Meaux]], formed the Circle of [[Meaux]], aiming to improve the quality of preaching and religious life in general. They were joined by [[François Vatable]], an [[Hebraist|expert in Hebrew]],{{Sfn|Cairns|1996|p=308}} along with [[Guillaume Budé]], a [[Classicism|classicist]] and Royal librarian.{{Sfn|Grimm|1973|p=54}} Lefèvre's ''Fivefold Psalter'' and his commentary on the [[Epistle to the Romans]] emphasised the literal interpretation of the Bible and the centrality of [[Jesus Christ]].{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=275}} Many of the tenets behind [[Lutheranism]] first appeared in Luther's lectures, which in turn contained many of the ideas expressed in the works of Lefèvre.{{Sfn|Grimm|1973|p=55}}

Other members of the Circle included [[Marguerite de Navarre]], sister of Francis I and mother of [[Jeanne d'Albret]], as well as [[William Farel|Guillaume Farel]], who was exiled to [[Geneva]] in 1530 due to his reformist views and persuaded [[John Calvin]] to join him there.{{Sfn|Grimm|1973|pp=263–264}} Both men were banished from Geneva in 1538 for opposing what they viewed as government interference with religious affairs; although the two fell out over the nature of the [[Eucharist]], Calvin's return to Geneva in 1541 allowed him to forge the doctrine of [[Calvinism]].{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=8}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=21}}

A key driver behind the Reform movement was corruption among the [[clergy]] which Luther and others attacked and sought to change.{{Sfn|Cairns|1996|p=309}} Such criticisms were not new but the printing press allowed them to be widely shared, such as the ''[[Heptaméron]]'' by Marguerite, a collection of stories about clerical immorality.{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=279}} Another complaint was the reduction of [[Salvation]] to a business scheme based on the sale of [[Indulgences]], which added to general unrest and increased the popularity of works such as Farel's translation of the Lord's Prayer, ''The True and Perfect Prayer''. This focused on ''[[Sola fide]]'', or the idea salvation was a free gift from God, emphasised the importance of understanding in prayer and criticised the clergy for hampering the growth of true faith.{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=279}}

=== Growth of Calvinism ===
{{Main|Huguenot}}
[[File:François Ier Louvre.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|After an initial period of tolerance, [[Francis I of France|Francis&nbsp;I]] repressed Reformist ideas]]

The Italian revival of classical learning appealed to [[Francis I of France|Francis&nbsp;I]] (1494-1547), who set up royal professorships in [[Paris]] to better understand ancient literature. However, this did not extend to religion, especially after the 1516 [[Concordat of Bologna]] when [[Pope Leo X|Pope Leo&nbsp;X]] increased royal control of the [[Catholic Church in France|Gallican church]], allowing Francis to nominate French clergy and levy taxes on church property. Unlike Germany, the French nobility also generally supported the status quo and existing policies.{{Sfn|Lindberg|1996|p=292}}

Despite his personal opposition, Francis tolerated [[Martin Luther]]'s ideas when they entered France in the late 1520s, largely because the definition of Catholic [[orthodoxy]] was unclear, making it hard to determine precisely what was or was not [[heresy]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996| p=2}} He tried to steer a middle course in the developing religious schism,{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=4}} but in January&nbsp;1535, Catholic authorities made a definitive ruling by classifying "Lutherans" as heretical [[Theology of Huldrych Zwingli|Zwinglians]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=3}} Calvin, originally from [[Noyon]] in [[Picardy]],{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=3}} went into exile in 1535 to escape persecution and settled in [[Basel]], where he published the ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion]]'' in 1538. This work contained the key principles of [[Calvinism]], which became immensely popular in France and other European countries.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=4}}

Lutheranism was widespread within the French commercial class; it flourished in the cities but was not adopted among the peasantry.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knecht |first=R.J. |title=The French Wars of Religion 1559-1598 |date=2014a |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-41830-1 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford, UK |pages=10 |language=English}}</ref> However, it cut across social class and strata and encompassed the entire country. Its rapid growth was driven by the nobility, where being a Huguenot became fashionable.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knecht |first=R.J. |title=The French Wars of Religion 1559-1598 |date=2014a |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-41830-1 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford, UK |pages=13 |language=English}}</ref> It is believed to have started when [[Louis, Prince of Condé (1530–1569)|Condé]] passed through Geneva while returning home from a military campaign and heard a Calvinist sermon.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|pp=16–17}} Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre, converted to Calvinism in 1560, possibly due to the influence of [[Theodore de Beze]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|pp=16–17}} Along with Condé and her husband [[Antoine of Navarre]], she and their son Henry of Navarre became Huguenot leaders.{{Sfn|Bernstein|Green|1988|p=328}}

===Rise in factionalism===
{{main|1559-1562 French political crisis}}
The crown continued efforts to remain neutral in the religious debate until the [[Affair of the Placards]] in October 1534,{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=4}} when Protestant radicals put up posters in Paris and other provincial towns that rejected the Catholic doctrine of the "[[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]]".{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=4}} This allowed Protestantism to be clearly defined as heresy, while Francis was furious at the breach of security which had allowed one of the posters to be placed on the door of his bedchamber.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=3}}{{Sfn|Holt|2005|p=20}} Having been severely criticised for his initial tolerance, he was now encouraged to punish those responsible.{{Sfn|Garnier|2008|p=90}} On 21 February 1535, a number of those implicated in the Affair were [[burning at the stake|executed]] in front of [[Notre-Dame de Paris]], an event attended by Francis and members of the [[Ottoman embassy to France (1534)|Ottoman embassy to France]].{{Sfn|Garnier|2008|p=90}}

[[File:Massacre of the Vaudois of Merindol.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Massacre of Mérindol]], as imagined by [[Gustave Doré]] (1832–1883)]]

The fight against heresy intensified in the 1540s, forcing Protestants to worship in secret.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|pp=6–7, 86–87}} In October 1545, Francis ordered the punishment of [[Waldensians]] based in the south-eastern village of [[Mérindol]].{{Sfn|Knecht|2002|p=402}} A long-standing [[Proto-Protestantism]] tradition dating back to the 13th century, the Waldensians had recently affiliated with the Reformed church and became increasingly militant in their activities. In what became known as the [[Massacre of Mérindol]], Provençal troops killed numerous residents and destroyed another 22 to 28 nearby villages, while hundreds of men were forced to become [[Galley slave]]s.{{Sfn|Audisio|1998|pp=270–271}}

Francis I died on 31&nbsp;March 1547 and was succeeded by his son [[Henry II of France|Henry&nbsp;II]], who continued the religious repression pursued by his father in the last years of his reign. His policies were even more severe since he sincerely believed all Protestants were heretics; on 27&nbsp;June 1551, the [[Edict of Châteaubriant]] sharply curtailed their right to worship. Prohibitions were placed upon the distribution of 'heretical' literature, with the property of 'heretics' seizable by the crown.{{sfn|Knecht|2010|p=22}}{{sfn|Holt|2005|p=41}}{{sfn|Sutherland|1980|pp=46-47}}{{sfn|Baumgartner|1988|p=130}}

From his base in Geneva, Calvin provided leadership and organisational structures for the [[Reformed Church of France]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=6}} [[Calvinism in France|Calvinism]] proved attractive to people from across the social hierarchy and occupational divides and was highly regionalised, with no coherent pattern of geographical spread. Despite persecution, their numbers and power increased markedly, driven by the conversion to Calvinism of large sections of the nobility. Historians estimate that by the outbreak of war in 1562, there were around two million French Calvinists, including more than half of the nobility, backed by 1,200–1,250 churches. This constituted a substantial threat to the monarchy.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=10}}

===Amboise conspiracy===
{{Main|Amboise conspiracy}}
[[File:Conjuration amboise.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Contemporary woodcut of executions following the [[Amboise conspiracy]]]]

In 1559, the Italian wars between France and Spain ended with the treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis. These wars had nearly bankrupted both countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knecht |first=R.J. |title=The French Wars of Religion 1559-1598 |date=2014a |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-41830-1 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford, UK |pages=3 |language=English}}</ref> Additionally, the death of Henry II in July 1559 created a political vacuum and an internal struggle for power between rival factions, which the 15-year-old Francis II lacked the ability to control. [[Francis, Duke of Guise]], whose niece Mary, Queen of Scots, was married to the king, exploited the situation to establish dominance over their rivals, the [[House of Montmorency]].{{Sfn|Salmon|1975|p=118}}{{Sfn|Rady|1991|pp=52–53}} Within days of the King's accession, the English ambassador reported "the [[house of Guise]] ruleth and doth all about the French King".{{Sfn|Knecht|2007|p=195}}

On 10 March 1560, a group of disaffected nobles led by Jean du Barry, attempted to break the power of the Guise by abducting the young king.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=25}} Their plans were discovered before being carried out and hundreds of suspected plotters executed, including du Barry.{{Sfn|Salmon|1975|pp=124–125}}{{Sfn|Sutherland|1962|pp=111–138)}} The Guise suspected Condé of involvement in the plot, and he was arrested and sentenced to death before being freed in the political chaos that followed the sudden death of Francis II, adding to the tensions of the period.{{Sfn|Sutherland|1984|pp=63–64}}

In the aftermath of the plot, the term "[[Huguenot]]" for France's Protestants came into widespread usage.{{Sfn|Salmon|1975|p=125}} Shortly afterwards, the first instances of Protestant [[iconoclasm]] or the destruction of images and statues in Catholic churches, occurred in [[Rouen]] and [[La Rochelle]]. This continued throughout 1561 in more than 20 cities and towns, sparking attacks on Protestants by Catholic mobs in [[Sens]], [[Cahors]], [[Carcassonne]], [[Tours]] and elsewhere.{{Sfn|Salmon|1975|pp=136–137}}

===Regency of Catherine de' Medici===
[[File:Catherine de Médicis - entourage de François Clouet.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Queen regent [[Catherine de' Medici]], {{circa|1560}}]]

When [[Francis II of France|Francis II]] died on 5 December 1560, his mother [[Catherine de' Medici]] became regent for her second son, the nine year old [[Charles IX of France|Charles&nbsp;IX]].{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=27}} With the state financially exhausted by the Italian Wars, Catherine had to preserve the independence of the monarchy from a range of competing factions led by powerful nobles, each of whom controlled what were essentially private armies.{{Sfn|Knecht|1996|p=29}} To offset the Guise or "Guisard", she agreed a deal in which Antoine of Navarre renounced any claim to the regency in return for Condé's release and the position of [[Lieutenant-General (France)|Lieutenant-General]] of France.{{Sfn|Bryson|1999|pages=111}}

Catherine had several options for dealing with "heresy", including continuing Henry's II's failed policy of eradication, an approach backed by Catholic [[Ultramontanism|ultras]] such as [[François de Tournon]], or converting the monarchy to Calvinism, as preferred by de Bèze.{{sfn|Holt|2005|pp=41–42}} A middle path between these two extremes was allowing both religions to be openly practised in France at least temporarily, or the Guisard compromise of scaling back persecution but not permitting [[Religious tolerance|toleration]].{{Sfn|Thompson|1909|p=44}} For the moment she held to the Guisard line.{{Sfn|Roelker|1996|pp=252–256}}

Before his death, Francis II had called the first [[Estates General of 1560-1|Estates General]] held since 1484, which in December 1560 assembled in [[Orléans]] to discuss topics which included taxation and religion. It made little progress on the latter, other than agreeing to pardon those convicted of religious offences in the prior year.{{Sfn|Thompson|1909|p=79}} Since this was clearly unacceptable to Condé and his followers, Catherine bypassed the Estates and enacted conciliatory measures such as the [[Edict of 19 April]] 1561 and the [[Edict of July]].{{Sfn|Roelker|1996|pp=252–256}} This recognised Catholicism as the state religion but confirmed [[Edict of Romorantin|previous measures]] reducing penalties for "heresy".{{Sfn|Castelnau|1724|p=112}}

The Estates then approved the [[Colloquy of Poissy]], which began its session on 8 September 1561, with the Protestants led by de Bèze and the Catholics by [[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine]], brother of the Duke of Guise. The two sides initially sought to accommodate Protestant forms of worship within the existing church but this proved impossible.{{Sfn|Castelnau|1724|p=110}}{{Efn|Catholic opponents of toleration were split between [[Ultramontanism]], those who backed the supreme authority of the [[Pope]] such as [[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine]], and [[Gallicanism]]. The latter viewed an independent but Catholic monarchy as an important guarantee of political freedom and distinguishes them from the "Politiques".{{Sfn|Roelker|1996|pp=59–67}}}} By the time the Colloquy ended on 8 October, it was clear the divide between Catholic and Protestant theology was too wide to be bridged.{{Sfn|Knecht|2000|pp=78–79}} With their options narrowing, the government attempted to quell escalating disorder in the provinces by passing the [[Edict of Saint-Germain]], which allowed Protestants to worship in public outside towns and in private inside them. On 1&nbsp;March, Guise family retainers attacked a Calvinist service in [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]], leading to what became known as the [[massacre of Vassy]]. This seemed to confirm Huguenot fears that the Guisards had no intention of compromising and is generally seen as the spark which led to open hostilities between the two religions.{{Sfn|Guérard|1959|p=152}}

===Turn to violence===
[[Guyenne]] was the epicentre of the turn to religious violence in late 16th-century France. Many explanations have been proffered for the rise of violence. Traditional explanations focus on the influence of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine of Navarre. Other explanations focus on the rise of seigneurialism in the 1550s and see the turn to violence as a response of the peasant class. The murder of the baron of {{ill|Château de Fumel|fr}} by a Protestant mob in 1561 is often cited as an example. Recent analyses, on the other hand, have turned the focus on religious explanations. [[Denis Crouzet]] fingers the fiery eschatological preaching of the Franciscan [[Thomas Illyricus]], who toured the region in the 1510s and 1520s. Stuart Carroll, however, argues for politicisation: "the violence was directly caused by politicized factions and was not the result of a spontaneous intercommunal eruption."{{sfn|Carroll|2019|pp=179–181}}