Editing Franz Joseph I of Austria (section)

==Revolutions of 1848==
{{Main|Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire|Hungarian Revolution of 1848}}

During the [[Revolutions of 1848]], the [[List of heads of government under Austrian emperors|Austrian Chancellor]] Prince [[Klemens von Metternich]] resigned (March–April 1848). The young archduke, who (it was widely expected) would soon succeed his uncle on the throne, was appointed Governor of [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] on 6 April 1848, but never took up the post. Sent instead to the [[First Italian War of Independence|front in Italy]], he joined Field Marshal [[Joseph Radetzky von Radetz|Radetzky]] on campaign on 29 April, receiving his baptism of fire on 5 May at [[Battle of Santa Lucia|Santa Lucia]].

By all accounts, he handled his first military experience calmly and with dignity. Around the same time, the imperial family was fleeing revolutionary Vienna for the calmer setting of [[Innsbruck]], in [[County of Tyrol|Tyrol]]. Called back from Italy, the archduke joined the rest of his family at Innsbruck by mid-June. It was here that Franz Joseph first met his cousin and eventual future bride, Elisabeth, then a girl of 10, but apparently the meeting made little impression.{{sfn|Murad|1968|p=33}}

Following Austria's victory over the Italians at [[Battle of Custoza (1848)|Custoza]] in late July 1848, the court felt it safe to return to Vienna, and Franz Joseph travelled with them. But within a few weeks, Vienna again appeared unsafe, and in September, the court left once more, this time for [[Olomouc|Olmütz]] in [[Margraviate of Moravia|Moravia]]. By now, [[Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz]], an influential military commander in Bohemia, was determined to see the young archduke soon put on the throne. It was thought that a new ruler would not be bound by the oaths to respect constitutional government to which Ferdinand had been forced to agree, and that it was necessary to find a young, energetic emperor to replace the kindly but mentally unfit Ferdinand.{{sfn|Murad|1968|p= 8}}

By the abdication of his uncle Ferdinand and the renunciation of his father (the mild-mannered Franz Karl), Franz Joseph succeeded as Emperor of Austria at Olmütz on 2 December 1848. At this time, he first became known by his second as well as his first Christian name. The name "Franz Joseph" was chosen to bring back memories of the new Emperor's great-granduncle, Emperor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] (Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790), remembered as a modernising reformer.{{sfn|Murad|1968|p= 6}}

Under the guidance of the new prime minister, [[Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg]], the new emperor at first pursued a cautious course, granting a [[March Constitution (Austria)|constitution in March 1849]]. At the same time, a military campaign was necessary against the Hungarians, who had [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848|rebelled against Habsburg central authority]] in the name of their ancient constitution. Franz Joseph was also almost immediately faced with a renewal of the [[First Italian War of Independence|fighting in Italy]], with King [[Charles Albert of Sardinia]] taking advantage of setbacks in [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]] to resume the war in March 1849.
[[File:Győri csata.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Győr]] on 28 June 1849. Franz Joseph enters [[Győr]] leading the Austrian troops.]]
However, the military tide began to turn swiftly in favor of Franz Joseph and the Austrian whitecoats. Almost immediately, Charles Albert was decisively beaten by Radetzky at [[Battle of Novara (1849)|Novara]] and forced to sue for peace, as well as to renounce his throne.

===Revolution in Hungary===
{{Main|Holy Alliance|Hungarian Revolution of 1848}}

Unlike other Habsburg ruled areas, the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] had an [[Uncodified constitution|old historic constitution]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Young |url=https://archive.org/details/secessionofquebe0000youn |title=Secession of Quebec and the Future of Canada |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7735-6547-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/secessionofquebe0000youn/page/138 138] |quote=the Hungarian constitution was restored. |url-access=registration}}</ref> which limited the power of the crown and had greatly increased the authority of the [[Diet of Hungary|parliament]] since the 13th century.
The Hungarian reform laws ([[April laws]]) were based on the 12 points that established the fundaments of modern civil and political rights, economic and societal reforms in the Kingdom of Hungary.<ref name="Ferenc Szakály 1980 178">{{Cite book |last=Ferenc Szakály |title=Hungary and Eastern Europe: Research Report Volume 182 of Studia historica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1980 |isbn=978-963-05-2595-4 |page=178}}</ref> The crucial turning point of the Hungarian events were the April laws which was ratified by his uncle King Ferdinand, however the new young Austrian monarch Francis Joseph arbitrarily "revoked" the laws without any legal competence. The monarchs had no right to revoke Hungarian parliamentary laws which were already signed. This unconstitutional act irreversibly escalated the conflict between the Hungarian parliament and Francis Joseph. The Austrian [[Stadion Constitution]] was accepted by the [[Imperial Diet (Austria)|Imperial Diet of Austria]], where Hungary had no representation, and which traditionally had no legislative power in the territory of Kingdom of Hungary; despite this, it also tried to abolish the [[Diet of Hungary]] (which existed as the supreme legislative power in Hungary since the late 12th century.)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Július Bartl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3orG2yZ9mBkC&q=%22stadion+constitution%22++%22Imperial+Diet%22&pg=PA222 |title=Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon, G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series |publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-86516-444-4 |page=222}}</ref>

The new Austrian constitution also went against the historical constitution of Hungary, and even tried to nullify it.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=et9nAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Declaration+of+Independence%22+%22Stadion+Constitution%22 |title=Hungarian statesmen of destiny, 1860–1960, Volume 58 of Atlantic studies on society in change, Volume 262 of East European monographs |publisher=Social Sciences Monograph |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-88033-159-3 |page=23}}</ref> Even the territorial integrity of the country was in danger: On 7 March 1849, an imperial proclamation was issued in the name of the Emperor Francis Joseph, according to the new proclamation, the territory of Kingdom of Hungary would be carved up and administered by five military districts, while the [[Principality of Transylvania (1711–1867)|Principality of Transylvania]] would be reestablished.<ref name="phillips">{{EB1911 |last=Phillips |first=Walter Alison |author-link=Walter Alison Phillips |wstitle=Hungary |volume=13 |pages=917–918}}</ref> These events represented a clear and obvious existential threat for the Hungarian state. The new constrained Stadion Constitution of Austria, the revocation of the April laws and the Austrian military campaign against Kingdom of Hungary resulted in the fall of the pacifist [[Lajos Batthyány|Batthyány government]] (which sought agreement with the court) and led to the sudden emergence of [[Lajos Kossuth]]'s followers in the Hungarian parliament, who demanded the full independence of Hungary. The Austrian military intervention in the Kingdom of Hungary resulted in strong anti-Habsburg sentiment among Hungarians, thus the events in Hungary grew into a war for total independence from the [[Habsburg dynasty]].

====Constitutional and legitimacy problems in Hungary====

On 7 December 1848, the [[Diet of Hungary]] formally refused to acknowledge the title of the new king, "as without the knowledge and consent of the diet no one could sit on the Hungarian throne", and called the nation to arms.<ref name=phillips/> While in most Western European countries (like France and the United Kingdom) the monarch's reign [[The king is dead, long live the king!|began immediately upon the death of their predecessor]], in Hungary the coronation was indispensable; if it were not properly executed, the kingdom remained "[[interregnum|orphaned]]".

Even during the long personal union between the Kingdom of Hungary and other Habsburg ruled areas, the Habsburg monarchs had to be crowned as [[King of Hungary]] in order to promulgate laws there or exercise royal prerogatives in the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yonge|first=Charlotte|title=A Book of Golden Deeds Of all Times and all Lands|publisher=Blackie and Son|location=London, Glasgow and Bombay|year=1867|chapter=The Crown of St. Stephen|chapter-url=http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/yonge/deeds/crown.html|access-date=21 August 2008}}</ref><ref name="review1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ce-review.org/00/1/nemes1.html|title=Central Europe Review&nbsp;– Hungary: The Holy Crown|last=Nemes|first=Paul|date=10 January 2000|access-date=26 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517110819/http://www.ce-review.org/00/1/nemes1.html|archive-date=17 May 2019|url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref>An account of this service, written by Count Miklos Banffy, a witness, may be read at [http://www.websitetoolbox.com/tool/post/royalcello/vpost?id=2646769&trail=15 The Last Habsburg Coronation: Budapest, 1916]. From [http://www.royaltymonarchy.com/ Theodore's Royalty and Monarchy Website].</ref> From a legal point of view, according to the coronation oath, a crowned Hungarian king could not relinquish the Hungarian throne during his life; if the king was alive and unable to do his duty as ruler, a governor (or regent, as they would be called in English) had to assume the royal duties. Constitutionally, Franz Joseph's uncle Ferdinand was still the legal [[king of Hungary]]. If there was no possibility to inherit the throne automatically due to the death of the predecessor king (since King Ferdinand was still alive), but the monarch wanted to relinquish his throne and appoint another king before his death, technically only one legal solution remained: the parliament had the power to dethrone the king and elect a new king. Due to the legal and military tensions, the Hungarian parliament did not grant Franz Joseph that favour. This event gave to the revolt an excuse of legality. Actually, from this time until the collapse of the revolution, [[Lajos Kossuth]] (as elected regent-president) became the de facto and de jure ruler of Hungary.<ref name=phillips/>

====Military difficulties in Hungary====
[[File:Franz Joseph of Austria young.jpg|thumb|upright|Franz Joseph in 1851.]]

While the revolutions in the Austrian territories had been suppressed by 1849 in Hungary, the situation was more severe and Austrian defeat seemed imminent. Sensing a need to secure his right to rule, Franz Joseph sought help from [[Russian Empire|Russia]], requesting the intervention of Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]], in order "to prevent the Hungarian insurrection developing into a European calamity".<ref>Rothenburg, G. ''The Army of Francis Joseph''. West Lafayette, Purdue University Press, 1976. p. 35.</ref> For the Russian military support, Franz Joseph kissed the hand of the tsar in [[Warsaw]] on 21 May 1849.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Paul Lendvai]]|title=The Hungarians A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2021|page=236|isbn=978-0-691-20027-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2C33DwAAQBAJ}}</ref> Tsar Nicholas supported Franz Joseph in the name of the [[Holy Alliance]],<ref>Eric Roman: ''Austria-Hungary & the Successor States: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present'' p. 67, Publisher: Infobase Publishing, 2003 {{ISBN|978-0-8160-7469-3}}</ref> and sent a 200,000 strong army with 80,000 auxiliary forces. Finally, the joint army of Russian and Austrian forces defeated the Hungarian forces. After the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under brutal [[martial law]].<ref>''The Making of the West'': Volume C, Lynn Hunt, pp. 683–684</ref>

With order now restored throughout his empire, Franz Joseph felt free to renege on the constitutional concessions he had made, especially as the Austrian parliament meeting at [[Kremsier]] had behaved—in the young Emperor's eyes—abominably. The 1849 constitution was suspended, and a policy of absolutist centralism was established, guided by the Minister of the Interior, [[Alexander Bach]].{{sfn|Murad|1968|p=41}}

====Assassination attempt in 1853====
[[File:J.Reiner - Attentat auf Kaiser Franz Joseph.jpg|thumb|upright|Assassination attempt on the emperor in 1853.]]

On 18 February 1853, Franz Joseph survived an assassination attempt by Hungarian nationalist [[János Libényi]].{{sfn|Murad|1968|p=42}} The emperor was taking a stroll with one of his officers, Count [[Maximilian Karl Lamoral O'Donnell]], on a city [[bastion]], when Libényi approached him. He immediately struck the emperor from behind with a knife straight at the neck. Franz Joseph almost always wore a uniform, which had a high collar that almost completely enclosed the neck. The collars of uniforms at that time were made from very sturdy material, precisely to counter this kind of attack. Even though the Emperor was wounded and bleeding, the collar saved his life. Count O'Donnell struck Libényi down with his sabre.{{sfn|Murad|1968|p=42}}

O'Donnell, hitherto a Count only by virtue of his Irish nobility,<ref>As a descendant of the Irish noble dynasty [[O'Donnell of Tyrconnell]]: ''O'Domhnaill Abu – [[O'Donnell]] Clan Newsletter'' no. 7, Spring 1987. {{ISSN|0790-7389}}</ref> was made a Count of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] (''[[Reichsgraf]]''). Another witness who happened to be nearby, the butcher Joseph Ettenreich, swiftly overpowered Libényi. For his deed he was later elevated to the nobility by the emperor and became Joseph von Ettenreich. Libényi was subsequently put on trial and condemned to death for attempted [[regicide]]. He was executed on the Simmeringer Heide.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Decker |first=Wolfgang |title=Kleingartenanlage Simmeringer Haide |url=http://www.simmeringerhaide.at/chronik.html |access-date=4 October 2018 |website=www.simmeringerhaide.at}}</ref>

After this unsuccessful attack, the emperor's brother Archduke [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Ferdinand Maximilian]] called upon Europe's royal families for donations to construct a new church on the site of the attack. The church was to be a [[votive offering]] for the survival of the emperor. It is located on [[Ringstraße]] in the district of [[Alsergrund]] close to the [[University of Vienna]], and is known as the [[Votivkirche]].{{sfn|Murad|1968|p=42}} The survival of Franz Joseph was also commemorated in Prague by erecting a new [[Statue of Francis of Assisi, Charles Bridge|statue of St. Francis of Assisi]], the patron saint of the emperor, on [[Charles Bridge]]. It was donated by Count [[Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky]], the first minister-president of the Austrian Empire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statuary of St. Francis Seraph |url=http://www.kralovskacesta.cz/en/tour/objects/statuary-of-st-francis-seraph.html |access-date=17 August 2019 |website=Královská cesta |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227131536/http://www.kralovskacesta.cz/en/tour/objects/statuary-of-st-francis-seraph.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>