Editing Francis I of France (section)

==Reign==
[[File:Jean Clouet - Portrait de François Ier (1494-1547), roi de France - Google Art Project.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Francis I painted in 1515]]
As Francis was receiving his education, ideas emerging from the [[Italian Renaissance]] were influential in France. Some of his tutors, such as {{Interlanguage link|François de Moulins de Rochefort|fr|François de Moulins de Rochefort}} (his Latin instructor, who later during the reign of Francis was named {{lang|fr|[[Grand Almoner of France|Grand Aumônier de France]]}}) and [[Christophe de Longueil]] (a [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabantian]] humanist), were attracted by these new ways of thinking and attempted to influence Francis. His academic education had been in [[arithmetic]], geography, grammar, history, reading, spelling, and writing and he became proficient in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Italian (language)|Italian]], [[Latin]] and [[Spanish (language)|Spanish]]. Francis came to learn chivalry, dancing, and music, and he loved archery, falconry, horseback riding, hunting, jousting, [[real tennis]] and wrestling. He ended up reading philosophy and theology and he was fascinated with art, literature, poetry and science. His mother, who admired [[Italian Renaissance art]], passed this interest on to her son. Although Francis did not receive a humanist education, he was more influenced by [[humanism]] than any previous French king.

===Patron of the arts===
[[File:Francois Ier Leonard de Vinci-Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres.jpg|thumb|Francis I receiving the last breath of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] in 1519, by [[Ingres]], painted in 1818]]

By the time he ascended the throne in 1515, the [[Renaissance]] had arrived in France, and Francis became an enthusiastic patron of the arts. At the time of his accession, the royal palaces of France were ornamented with only a scattering of great paintings, and not a single sculpture, not ancient nor modern.

Francis patronized many great artists of his time, including [[Andrea del Sarto]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]]; the latter of whom was persuaded to make France his home during his last years. While da Vinci painted very little during his years in France, he brought with him many of his greatest works, including the ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' (known in France as {{lang|fr|La Joconde}}), and these remained in France after his death. Other major artists to receive Francis's patronage included the goldsmith [[Benvenuto Cellini]] and the painters [[Rosso Fiorentino]], [[Giulio Romano (painter)|Giulio Romano]], and [[Primaticcio]], all of whom were employed in decorating Francis's various palaces. He also invited architect [[Sebastiano Serlio]], who enjoyed a fruitful late career in France.<ref>{{cite book |last=Serlio |first=Sebastiano |chapter=Sebastiano Serlio on architecture |date=1996 |title=Tutte l'opere d'architettura et prospetiva |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-06286-9 |editor-last=Hart |editor-first=Vaughan |volume=2 |page=xi |ol=811378M |author-link=Sebastiano Serlio |orig-date=1486 |editor-last2=Hicks |editor-first2=Peter |trans-title=All the Works of Architecture and Perspective}}</ref> Francis also commissioned a number of agents in Italy to procure notable works of art and ship them to France.

===Man of letters===
Francis was also renowned as a [[man of letters]]. When he comes up in a conversation among characters in [[Baldassare Castiglione]]'s ''[[Book of the Courtier]]'', it is as the great hope to bring culture to the war-obsessed French nation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Castiglione |first=Baldassarre |url=https://archive.org/details/bookofcourtier0000cast_j3z8/mode/2up?q=magnifico |title=The book of the courtier |date=2003 |publisher=Mineola, N.Y. : Dover Publications |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-486-42702-7 |pages=56}}</ref> Not only did Francis support a number of major writers of the period, but he was also a poet himself, if not one of particular ability. Francis worked diligently at improving the royal library. He appointed the French humanist [[Guillaume Budé]] as chief librarian and began to expand the collection. Francis employed agents in Italy to look for rare books and manuscripts, just as he had agents looking for artworks. During his reign, the size of the library greatly increased. Not only did he expand the library, but there is also evidence<ref>{{Cite web |title=francis-i-prince-of-the-renaissance |url=https://malevus.com/francis-i-of-france/#francis-i-prince-of-the-renaissance |access-date=2 November 2024 |website=Malevus |date=22 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref> that he read the books he bought for it, a much rarer event in the royal annals. Francis set an important precedent by opening his library to scholars from around the world in order to facilitate the diffusion of knowledge.

In 1537, Francis signed the {{lang|fr|[[Ordonnance de Montpellier]]|italic=no}}, which decreed that his library be given a copy of every book to be sold in France. Francis's older sister, [[Marguerite de Navarre|Marguerite]], [[List of Navarrese monarchs|Queen of Navarre]], was an accomplished writer who produced the classic collection of short stories known as the ''[[Heptaméron]]''. Francis corresponded with the abbess and philosopher [[Claude de Bectoz]], of whose letters he was so fond that he would carry them around and show them to the ladies of his court.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A New Universal Biography: Forming the first volume of series III |last=Plats |first=John |year=1826 |publisher=Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper |page=301}}</ref> Together with his sister, he visited her in [[Saint-Honorat Abbey (Tarascon)|Tarascon]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Marguerite de Navarre: mother of the Renaissance |last1=Cholakian |first1=Patricia Francis |last2=Cholakian |first2=Rouben Charles |year=2006 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=0-231-13412-6 |page=49 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Faillon |first=Étienne-Michel |author-link=Étienne-Michel Faillon |date=1835 |title=Monumens de l'église de Sainte-Marthe à Tarascon, département des Bouches-du-Rhône |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oL0AAAAAcAAJ |language=French |location=Tarascon |publisher=Élisée Aubanel, Imprimeur-libraire|page=57}}</ref>

===Construction===
[[File:France Loir-et-Cher Chambord Chateau 03.jpg|thumb|Francis's [[Château de Chambord]] displays a distinct [[French Renaissance architecture]].]]
Francis poured vast amounts of money into new structures. He continued the work of his predecessors on the {{lang|fr|[[Château d'Amboise]]|italic=no}} and also started renovations on the {{lang|fr|[[Château de Blois]]|italic=no}}. Early in his reign, he began construction of the magnificent {{lang|fr|[[Château de Chambord]]|italic=no}}, inspired by the architectural styles of the Italian Renaissance, and perhaps even designed by Leonardo da Vinci. Francis rebuilt the [[Louvre Palace]], transforming it from a [[Medieval Louvre|medieval fortress]] into a building of Renaissance splendour. He financed the building of a new City Hall (the {{lang|fr|[[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]]}}) for Paris in order to have control over the building's design. He constructed the {{lang|fr|[[Château de Madrid]]|italic=no}} in the {{lang|fr|[[Bois de Boulogne]]|italic=no}} and rebuilt the {{lang|fr|[[Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye]]|italic=no}}. The largest of Francis's building projects was the reconstruction and expansion of the {{lang|fr|[[Château de Fontainebleau]]|italic=no}}, which quickly became his favourite place of residence, as well as the residence of his official mistress, [[Anne de Pisseleu d'Heilly|Anne, Duchess of Étampes]].

===Military action===
[[File:Truce of Nice 1538.jpg|thumb|left|Francis I and Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] made peace at the [[Truce of Nice]] in 1538. Francis&nbsp;I actually refused to meet Charles in person, and the treaty was signed in separate rooms.]]
Although the [[Italian Wars]] (1494–1559) came to dominate the reign of Francis I, which he constantly participated in at the forefront as le Roi-Chevalier, the wars were not the sole focus of his policies. He merely continued the wars that he succeeded from his predecessors and that his heir and successor on the throne, [[Henry II of France]], would inherit after Francis's death. Indeed, the Italian Wars had begun when [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]] sent a plea to King Charles VIII of France for protection against the aggressive actions of the [[King of Naples]].<ref>Hoyt, Robert S. & Stanley Chodorow, ''Europe in the Middle Ages'' (Harcourt, Brace & Jovanovich Inc.: New York, 1976), p. 619.</ref> 

Much of the military activity of Francis's reign was focused on his sworn enemy, the Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. Francis and Charles maintained an intense personal rivalry. In addition to the Holy Roman Empire, Charles personally ruled Spain, Austria, and a number of smaller possessions neighbouring France. He was thus a constant threat to Francis&nbsp;I's kingdom.

Militarily and diplomatically, the reign of Francis&nbsp;I was a mixed bag of success and failure. Francis had tried and failed to become [[Holy Roman Emperor]] at the [[Imperial election of 1519]], primarily due to his adversary Charles having threatened the electors with violence. However, there were also temporary victories, such as in the portion of the Italian Wars called the [[War of the League of Cambrai]] (1508–1516) and, more specifically, to the final stage of that war, which history refers to simply as "Francis's First Italian War" (1515–1516), when Francis routed the combined forces of the Papal States and the [[Old Swiss Confederacy]] at [[Battle of Marignano|Marignano]] on 13–15 September 1515. This grand victory allowed Francis to capture the Italian city-state of [[Duchy of Milan]]. However, in November 1521, during the [[Italian War of 1521–1526|Four Years' War]] (1521–1526), Francis was forced to abandon Milan in the face of the advancing Imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire and open revolt within the duchy.

[[File:Francis at Marignan.jpg|thumb|Francis I at the [[Battle of Marignano]]]]

Francis I attempted to arrange an alliance with [[Henry&nbsp;VIII]] at the famous meeting at the [[Field of Cloth of Gold]] on 7 June 1520, but despite a lavish fortnight of diplomacy they failed to reach an agreement.{{Sfnp|Richardson|2014|pp=32–36}} Francis and Henry VIII both shared the dreams of power and chivalric glory; however their relationship featured intense personal and dynastic rivalry. Francis was driven by his intense eagerness to retake Milan, despite the strong opposition of other powers. Henry VIII was likewise determined to recapture northern France, which Francis could not allow.{{Sfnp|Richardson|1994|pp=20–26}}

However, the situation was grave; Francis had to face not only the whole might of Western Europe, but also internal hostility in the form of [[Charles III de Bourbon]], a capable commander who fought alongside Francis as his constable at the great battle of Marignano, but defected to Charles V after his conflict with Francis's mother over inheritance of Bourbon estates. Despite all this, the Kingdom of France still held the balance of power in its favour. Nevertheless, the defeat suffered from the cataclysmic [[battle of Pavia]] on 24 February 1525, during part of the continuing Italian Wars known as the [[Italian War of 1521–1526|Four Years' War]] upheaved the political ground of Europe. He was actually taken prisoner: [[Cesare Hercolani]] injured his horse, and Francis himself was subsequently captured by [[Charles de Lannoy]]. Some claim he was captured by Diego Dávila, [[Alonso Pita da Veiga]], and [[Juan de Urbieta]], from Guipúzcoa. For this reason, Hercolani was named "Victor of the battle of Pavia". {{lang|it|[[Zuppa alla Pavese]]}} was supposedly invented on the spot to feed the captive king after the battle.<ref>Andrews, Colman. (2012)[https://books.google.com/books?id=yTqyEdU7fEcC&pg=PT61 ''Country Cooking of Italy''. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, p. 60.] {{ISBN|978-1-4521-2392-9}}.</ref>

Francis was held captive morbidly in Madrid. In a letter to his mother, he wrote, "Of all things, nothing remains to me but honour and life, which is safe." This line has come down in history famously as "All is lost save honour."<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Francis I. of France |volume=10 |page=935 |first=Jules |last=Isaac |author-link=Jules Isaac}}</ref> Francis was compelled to make major concessions to Charles in the [[Treaty of Madrid (1526)]], signed on 14 January, before he was freed on 17 March. An ultimatum from Ottoman Sultan Suleiman to Charles additionally played a role in his release. Francis was forced to surrender any claims to Naples and Milan in Italy.<ref name=Mallet>Mallet, Michael; Shaw, Christine. ''The Italian Wars: 1494–1559'' (Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2012) p. 153.</ref> He was forced to recognise the independence of the Duchy of Burgundy, which had been part of France since the death of [[Charles, Duke of Burgundy|Charles the Bold]] in 1477.<ref>Kendall, Paul Murray. ''Louis XI: The Universal Spider'' (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1971), p. 314.</ref> And finally, Francis was betrothed to Charles' sister Eleanor. Francis returned to France in exchange for his two sons, [[Francis III, Duke of Brittany|Francis]] and Henry, Duke of Orléans, the future Henry II of France, but once he was free he revoked the forced concessions as his agreement with Charles was made under duress. He also proclaimed that the agreement was void because his sons were taken hostage with the implication that his word alone could not be trusted. Thus he firmly repudiated it. A renewed alliance with England enabled Francis to repudiate the treaty of Madrid.

[[File:Manif. di bruxelles su dis.di bernart von orley, IGMN144483, 1526-31.JPG|thumb|280px|left|Detail of a tapestry depicting the [[Battle of Pavia]], woven from a cartoon by [[Bernard van Orley]] ({{circa|1531}})]]
Francis persevered in his rivalry against Charles and his intent to control Italy. By the mid-1520s, [[Pope Clement VII]] wished to liberate Italy from foreign domination, especially that of Charles, so he allied with [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] to form the [[League of Cognac]]. Francis joined the League in May 1526, in the [[War of the League of Cognac]] of 1526–30.<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Michael |last1=Mallett |first2=Christine |last2=Shaw |title=The Italian Wars: 1494–1559 |page=155}}</ref> Francis's allies proved weak, and the war was ended by the [[Treaty of Cambrai]] (1529; "the Peace of the Ladies", negotiated by Francis's mother and Charles' aunt).{{Sfnp|Richardson|2015|p=41}} The two princes were released, and Francis married Eleanor.

On 24 July 1534, Francis, inspired by the Spanish [[tercios]] and the Roman legions, issued an edict to form seven infantry Légions of 6,000 troops each, of which 12,000 of the 42,000 were to be [[arquebusiers]], testifying to the growing importance of gunpowder. The force was a national standing army, where any soldier could be promoted on the basis of vacancies, was paid wages by grade and granted exemptions from the [[taille]] and other taxes up to 20 ''sous'', a heavy burden on the state budget.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Janine Garrisson, Emmanuel Haven |title=A History of Sixteenth Century France, 1483-1598 Renaissance, Reformation and Rebellion |date=1995 |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-1-349-24020-3 |pages=155–156}}</ref>

After the League of Cognac failed, Francis concluded a secret alliance with [[Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse]] on 27 January 1534. This was directed against Charles on the pretext of assisting the [[Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg|Duke of Württemberg]] to regain his traditional seat, from which Charles had removed him in 1519. Francis also obtained the help of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and after the death of [[Francesco II Sforza]], ruler of Milan, renewed the contest in Italy in the [[Italian War of 1536–1538]]. This round of fighting, which had little result, was ended by the [[Truce of Nice]]. The agreement collapsed, however, which led to Francis's final attempt on Italy in the [[Italian War of 1542–1546]]. Francis&nbsp;I managed to hold off the forces of Charles and Henry&nbsp;VIII, with Charles being forced to sign the [[Treaty of Crépy]] because of his financial difficulties and conflicts with the [[Schmalkaldic League]].<ref>Parker, Geoffrey (2019). ''Emperor'', pp 308–312.</ref>

===Relations with the Americas and Asia===
[[File:Viaggioverrazzano.jpg|thumb|The voyage of [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] in 1524]]

Francis had been much aggrieved at the [[papal bull]] {{lang|la|[[Aeterni regis]]}}: in June 1481 Portuguese rule over Africa and the Indies was confirmed by [[Pope Sixtus IV]]. Thirteen years later, on 7 June 1494, [[Portugal]] and the [[Crown of Castile|Crown of Castille]] signed the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] under which the newly discovered lands would be divided between the two signatories. All this prompted Francis to declare, "The sun shines for me as it does for others. I would very much like to see the clause of Adam's will by which I should be denied my share of the world."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Canada Quebec 1534–2000 |last=Lacoursière |first=Jacques |publisher=Septentrion |year=2005 |isbn=978-2-89448-186-8 |location=Québec |page=28 }}</ref>

In order to counterbalance the power of the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Empire]] under Charles V, especially its control of large parts of the [[New World]] through the Crown of Spain, Francis endeavoured to develop contacts with the New World and Asia. Fleets were sent to the Americas and the Far East, and close contacts were developed with the Ottoman Empire permitting the development of French Mediterranean trade as well as the establishment of a strategic military alliance.

The port city now known as [[Le Havre]] was founded in 1517 during the early years of Francis's reign. The construction of a new port was urgently needed in order to replace the ancient harbours of [[Honfleur]] and [[Harfleur]], whose utility had decreased due to silting. Le Havre was originally named ''Franciscopolis'' after the king who founded it, but this name did not survive into later reigns.

====Americas====
{{further|France-Americas relations}}

In 1524, Francis assisted the citizens of [[Lyon]] in financing the expedition of [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] to North America. On this expedition, Verrazzano visited the present site of [[New York City]], naming it [[New Angoulême]], and claimed [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] for the French crown. Verrazzano's letter to Francis of 8 July 1524 is known as the ''[[Cèllere Codex]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Destombes|first1=M.|date=1954|title=Nautical Charts Attributed to Verrazano (1525–1528)|journal=Imago Mundi|volume=11|pages=57–66|oclc=1752690|doi=10.1080/03085695408592059}}</ref>

In 1531, [[Bertrand d'Ornesan]] tried to establish a French trading post at [[Pernambuco]], Brazil.{{Sfnp|Knecht|1982|p=375}}

In 1534, Francis sent [[Jacques Cartier]] to explore the [[St. Lawrence River]] in [[Quebec]] to find "certain islands and lands where it is said there must be great quantities of gold and other riches".{{Sfnp|Knecht|1982|p=333}} In 1541, Francis sent [[Jean-François Roberval|Jean-François de Roberval]] to settle Canada and to provide for the spread of "the Holy Catholic faith."

====Asia====
{{further|France–Asia relations}}
[[File:Australia first map.jpg|thumb|An example of the [[Dieppe maps]] showing [[Sumatra]]. [[Nicholas Vallard]], 1547.]]

French trade with East Asia was initiated during the reign of Francis&nbsp;I with the help of shipowner [[Jean Ango]]. In July 1527, a French [[Normandy|Norman]] trading ship from the city of [[Rouen]] is recorded by the Portuguese [[João de Barros]] as having arrived in the Indian city of [[Diu, India|Diu]].<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA61 |title=The English history of the British Empire |page=61 |access-date=23 August 2012|year=1940 |last1=Benians |first1=Ernest Alfred |last2=Newton |first2=Arthur Percival |last3=Rose |first3=John Holland }}</ref> In 1529, [[Jean Parmentier (explorer)|Jean Parmentier]], on board the {{lang|fr|Sacre}} and the {{lang|fr|Pensée}}, reached [[Sumatra]].<ref name="Cambridge"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HlibHoeruDUC&pg=PA123 |title=European travellers in India |page=123 |access-date=23 August 2012 |isbn=978-81-206-0710-1 |last1=Oaten |first1=Edward Farley |year=1991 |publisher=Asian Educational Services }}</ref> Upon its return, the expedition triggered the development of the [[Dieppe maps]], influencing the work of [[Dieppe, Seine-Maritime|Dieppe]] cartographers such as [[Jean Rotz]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7OuMkzGKw0C&pg=PA57 |title=Explorers and colonies: America, 1500–1625 |page=57 |date=1990 |access-date=23 August 2012 |isbn=978-1-85285-024-1 |last1=Quinn |first1=David B. |publisher=A&C Black }}</ref>

====Ottoman Empire====
{{further|Franco-Ottoman alliance|Orientalism in early modern France}}

Under the reign of Francis I, France became the first country in Europe to establish formal relations with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and to set up instruction in the [[Arabic language]] under the guidance of [[Guillaume Postel]] at the {{lang|fr|[[Collège de France]]|italic=no}}.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl8fniRER4kC&pg=PA26 |title=Eastern wisdom and learning: the study of Arabic in seventeenth-century... |first=G. J. |last=Toomer |year=1996 |author-link=G. J. Toomer |pages=26–27 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-820291-2 }}</ref>

[[File:Francois I Suleiman.jpg|thumb|left|Francis I (left) and [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (right) initiated a [[Franco-Ottoman alliance]]. Both were separately painted by [[Titian]] {{circa|1530}}.]]

In a watershed moment in European diplomacy, Francis came to an understanding with the Ottoman Empire that developed into a [[Franco-Ottoman alliance]]. The objective for Francis was to find an ally against the [[House of Habsburg]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.org/details/ottomanempireitsmill |title=The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922. Being a rev. and enl. ed. of The Ottoman Empire, 1801–1913 |first1=William |last1=Miller |date=4 January 1923 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |via=Internet Archive }}</ref> The pretext used by Francis was the protection of the [[Christianity in the Ottoman Empire|Christians in Ottoman lands]]. The alliance has been called "the first nonideological diplomatic alliance of its kind between a Christian and non-Christian empire".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5iJ1tfLnnoC&q=%22Franco-Turkish+alliance%22&pg=PA62 |title=Kann |page=62 |year=1980 |access-date=23 August 2012 |isbn=978-0-520-04206-3 |last1=Kann |first1=Robert A. |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref> It did, however, cause quite a scandal in the Christian world<ref name="Miller, p.2">Miller, p. 2</ref> and was designated "the impious alliance", or "the sacrilegious union of the [French]&nbsp;[[Fleur-de-lis|Lily]] and the [Ottoman]&nbsp;[[Star and crescent|Crescent]]." Nevertheless, it endured for many years, since it served the objective interests of both parties.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkMHta3C7LUC&q=%22Franco-Turkish+alliance%22&pg=PA219 |title=Merriman|page= 133 |year=2007 |access-date=23 August 2012|isbn=978-1-4067-7272-2 |last1=Merriman |first1=Roger Bigelow |publisher=Read Books |author1-link=R. B. Merriman}}</ref> The two powers colluded against [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], and in 1543 they even combined for a joint naval assault in the [[siege of Nice]].

In 1533, Francis I sent colonel [[Pierre de Piton]] as ambassador to [[Morocco]], initiating official [[France-Morocco relations]].<ref>"Francois I, hoping that Morocco would open up to France as easily as Mexico had to Spain, sent a commission, half commercial and half diplomatic, which he confided to one Pierre de Piton. The story of his mission is not without interest" in ''The conquest of Morocco'' by Cecil Vivian Usborne, S. Paul & co. ltd., 1936, p. 33.</ref> In a letter to Francis&nbsp;I dated 13 August 1533, the [[Wattassid]] ruler of [[Fes|Fez]], [[Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad|Ahmed ben Mohammed]], welcomed French overtures and granted freedom of shipping and protection of French traders.

===Bureaucratic reform and language policy===
[[File:Ordonnance de Villers Cotterets August 1539.jpg|thumb|The [[Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts]] in August 1539 prescribed the use of French in official documents.]]

Francis took several steps to eradicate the monopoly of [[Latin]] as the language of knowledge. In 1530, he declared French the national language of the kingdom, and that same year opened the Collège des trois langues, or {{lang|fr|[[Collège de France|Collège Royal]]|italic=no}}, following the recommendation of humanist [[Guillaume Budé]]. Students at the Collège could study [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]], then [[Arabic]] under [[Guillaume Postel]] beginning in 1539.<ref>McCabe, Ina Baghdianitz. ''Orientalism in early modern France''. {{ISBN|978-1-84520-374-0}}, p. 25 ''ff''.</ref>

In 1539, in his castle in [[Villers-Cotterêts]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuyx5E_wp7QC&pg=PA158 |title=The rise and fall of Renaissance France, 1483–1610 |page=158 |date= 2002|access-date=23 August 2012 |isbn=978-0-631-22729-8 |last1=Knecht |first1=Robert J. |publisher=Wiley }}</ref> Francis signed the important edict known as [[Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts]], which, among other reforms, made French the administrative language of the kingdom as a replacement for [[Latin language|Latin]]. This same edict required priests to register births, marriages, and deaths, and to establish a registry office in every parish. This initiated the first records of vital statistics with filiations available in Europe.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}}

===Religious policies===
Divisions in [[Christianity]] in Western Europe during Francis's reign created lasting international rifts. [[Martin Luther]]'s preaching and writing sparked the [[Protestant Reformation]], which spread through much of Europe, including France.

[[File:Massacre of the Vaudois of Merindol.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mérindol massacre|Massacre of Mérindol]] in 1545]]

Initially, Francis was relatively tolerant of the new movement, despite burning several heretics at the [[Place Maubert]] in 1523.<ref>[[Pierre Goubert|Goubert, Pierre]] (1991). ''The Course of French History'', Psychology Press, p. 92.</ref> He was influenced by his beloved sister [[Marguerite de Navarre]], who was genuinely attracted by Luther's theology.<ref>[[Pierre Goubert|Goubert, Pierre]] (1991). ''The Course of French History'', Psychology Press, pp. 91–92.</ref> Francis even considered it politically useful, as it caused many [[Imperial Estate|German princes]] to turn against his enemy Charles V.

Francis's attitude towards [[Protestantism]] changed for the worse following the "[[Affair of the Placards]]", on the night of 17 October 1534, in which notices appeared on the streets of Paris and other major cities denouncing the Catholic [[mass (Catholicism)|mass]]. The most fervent Catholics were outraged by the notice's allegations. Francis himself came to view the movement as a plot against him and began to persecute its followers. Protestants were jailed and executed. In some areas, whole villages were destroyed. In Paris, after 1540, Francis had heretics such as [[Étienne Dolet]] tortured and burned.<ref>Goubert, op. cit., p. 92</ref> [[Printing]] was censored and leading [[Protestant reformers]] such as [[John Calvin]] were forced into exile. The persecutions soon numbered thousands of dead and tens of thousands of homeless.{{Sfnp|Knecht|1982|pp=405, 406}}

Persecutions against Protestants were codified in the [[Edict of Fontainebleau (1540)]] issued by Francis. Major acts of violence continued, as when Francis ordered the extirpation of one of the historical pre-Lutheran groups, the [[Waldensians]], at the [[Massacre of Mérindol]] in 1545.{{sfn|Knecht|1997|p=69}}

===Death===
Francis died at the {{lang|fr|[[Château de Rambouillet]]|italic=no}} on 31 March 1547, on his son and successor's 28th birthday. It is said that "he died complaining about the weight of a crown that he had first perceived as a gift from God".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cavendish |first1=Richard |title=The Marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots |url=http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/marriage-mary-queen-scots |website=www.historytoday.com}}</ref> He was interred with his first wife, Claude, Duchess of Brittany, in [[Saint Denis Basilica]]. He was succeeded by his son, [[Henry II of France|Henry&nbsp;II]].

Francis's tomb and that of his wife and mother, along with the tombs of other French kings and members of the royal family, were desecrated on 20 October 1793 during the [[Reign of Terror]] at the height of the [[French Revolution]].

===Image and reputation===
[[File:Grand culverin of Francis I 140mm 307cm Algiers recovered in 1830.jpg|thumb|[[Calibres de France|Grand culverin]] of Francis I, with his emblem and motto. A gift to his Ottoman allies recovered in [[Algiers]] in 1830. [[Musée de l'Armée]].]]

Francis I has a poor reputation in France—his 500th anniversary was little noted in 1994. Popular and scholarly historical memory ignores his building of so many chateaux, his art collection, and his patronage of scholars and artists. He is seen as a playboy who disgraced France by allowing himself to be defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia. The historian [[Jules Michelet]] set the negative image.<ref>Knecht, Robert J. (2000). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24412871 "'Born between two women...' Jules Michelet and Francis I." ''Renaissance Studies'' 14#3: 329–343.] ''JSTOR''.</ref>

Francis's personal emblem was the [[salamander (legendary creature)|salamander]] and his Latin motto was {{lang|la|Nutrisco et extinguo}} ("I nourish [the good] and extinguish [the bad]").{{Sfnp|Richardson|2015}} His long nose earned him the nickname {{lang|fr|François du Grand Nez}} ('Francis of the Big Nose'), and he was also colloquially known as the {{lang|fr|Grand Colas}} or {{lang|fr|Bonhomme Colas}}. For his personal involvement in battles, he was known as {{lang|fr|le Roi-Chevalier}} ('the Knight-King') or {{lang|fr|le Roi-Guerrier}} ('the Warrior-King').<ref>[[Éditions Larousse|Larousse]] [https://archive.today/20130213110523/http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/article/Laroussefr_-_Article/11020086]</ref>

British historian Glenn Richardson considers Francis a success:
:He was a king who ruled as well as reigned. He knew the importance of war and a high international profile in staking his claim to be a great warrior-king of France. In battle, he was brave, if impetuous, which led equally to triumph and disaster. Domestically, Francis exercised the spirit and letter of the royal prerogative to its fullest extent. He bargained hard over taxation and other issues with interest groups, often by appearing not to bargain at all. He enhanced royal power and concentrated decision-making in a tight personal executive but used a wide range of offices, gifts and his own personal charisma to build up an elective personal affinity among the ranks of the nobility upon whom his reign depended&nbsp;.... Under Francis, the court of France was at the height of its prestige and international influence during the 16th century. Although opinion has varied considerably over the centuries since his death, his cultural legacy to France, to its Renaissance, was immense and ought to secure his reputation as among the greatest of its kings.{{Sfnp|Richardson|2015|p=45}}