Editing First Punic War (section)

==Background==
[[File:Carthage view.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|alt=A black and white aerial photograph of an urban area by the sea with a water-filled, torus-shaped inlet.|{{center|An aerial photograph of the remains of the naval base of the city of Carthage. The remains of the mercantile harbour are in the centre and those of the military harbour are bottom right. Before the war Carthage had the most powerful navy in the western Mediterranean.}}]]

The [[Roman Republic]] had been [[Roman expansion in Italy|aggressively expanding]] in the southern Italian mainland for a century before the First Punic War.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=157–158}} It had conquered peninsular Italy south of the River [[Arno]] by 272&nbsp;BC when the Greek cities of southern Italy ([[Magna Graecia]]) submitted at the conclusion of the [[Pyrrhic War]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=21–22}} During this period [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]], with its capital in what is now [[Tunisia]], had come to dominate southern [[Spain]], much of the coastal regions of North Africa, the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]], and the western half of [[Sicily]], in a military and commercial empire.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=29–30}} Beginning in 480&nbsp;BC Carthage had fought a [[Sicilian Wars|series of inconclusive wars]] against the Greek [[city state]]s of Sicily, led by [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=115, 132}} By 264&nbsp;BC Carthage and Rome were the preeminent powers in the western Mediterranean.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=25–26}} The two states had several times asserted their mutual friendship via [[Treaties between Rome and Carthage|formal alliances]]: in 509&nbsp;BC, 348&nbsp;BC and around 279&nbsp;BC. Relationships were good, with strong commercial links. During the Pyrrhic War of 280–275&nbsp;BC, against a king of [[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]] who alternately fought Rome in Italy and Carthage on Sicily, Carthage provided [[materiel]] to the Romans and on at least one occasion used its navy to ferry a Roman force.{{sfn|Miles|2011|pp=94, 160, 163, 164–165}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=69–70}}

In 289&nbsp;BC a group of Italian [[mercenary|mercenaries]] known as [[Mamertines]], previously hired by Syracuse, occupied the city of Messana (modern [[Messina, Italy|Messina]]) on the north-eastern tip of Sicily.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=165}} Hard-pressed by Syracuse, the Mamertines appealed to both Rome and Carthage for assistance in 265&nbsp;BC. The Carthaginians acted first, pressing [[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero&nbsp;II]], king of Syracuse, into taking no further action and convincing the Mamertines to accept a Carthaginian garrison.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=44}} According to Polybius, a considerable debate then took place in Rome as to whether to accept the Mamertines' appeal for assistance. As the Carthaginians had already garrisoned Messana, acceptance could easily lead to war with Carthage. The Romans had not previously displayed any interest in Sicily and did not wish to come to the aid of soldiers who had unjustly stolen a city from its rightful owners. However, many of them saw strategic and monetary advantages in gaining a foothold in Sicily. The deadlocked [[Roman Senate]], possibly at the instigation of [[Appius Claudius Caudex]], put the matter before the popular assembly in 264&nbsp;BC. Caudex encouraged a vote for action and held out the prospect of plentiful [[Looting|booty]]; the popular assembly decided to accept the Mamertines' request.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=42–45}}{{sfn|Rankov|2015|p=150}}{{sfn|Scullard|2006|p=544}} Caudex was appointed commander of a military expedition with orders to cross to Sicily and place a Roman garrison in Messana.{{sfn|Starr|1991|p=479}}{{sfn|Warmington|1993|pp=168–169}}

The war began with the Romans landing on Sicily in 264&nbsp;BC. Despite the Carthaginian naval advantage, the Roman crossing of the [[Strait of Messina]] was ineffectively opposed.{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=48–49}} Two legions commanded by Caudex [[Battle of Messana|marched to Messana]], where the Mamertines had expelled the Carthaginian garrison commanded by [[Hanno, Messana garrison commander|Hanno]] (no relation to [[Hanno II the Great|Hanno the Great]]) and were besieged by both the Carthaginians and the Syracusans.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=52}} The sources are unclear as to why, but first the Syracusans, and then the Carthaginians withdrew from the siege. The Romans marched south and in turn besieged Syracuse, but they had neither a strong enough force nor the secure supply lines to prosecute a successful siege, and soon withdrew.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=52–53}} The Carthaginians' experience over the previous two centuries of warfare on Sicily was that decisive action was impossible; military efforts petered out after heavy losses and huge expense. The Carthaginian leaders expected that this war would run a similar course. Meanwhile, their overwhelming maritime superiority would allow the war to be kept at a distance, and even for them to continue to prosper.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=179}} This would allow them to recruit and pay an army that would operate in the open against the Romans, while their strongly fortified cities could be supplied by sea and provide a defensive base from which to operate.{{sfn|Warmington|1993|p=171}}

=== Armies ===
{{main|Roman army of the mid-Republic|Military of Carthage}}
[[File:Altar Domitius Ahenobarbus Louvre n3 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|alt=A monochrome relief stele depicting two figures dressed as Roman legionaries|{{center|Detail from the [[Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus|Ahenobarbus relief]] showing two Roman foot-soldiers from the second century BC}}]]

Adult male Roman citizens were liable for military service; most would serve as [[infantry]] with the wealthier minority providing a [[Roman cavalry|cavalry]] component. Traditionally the Romans would raise two [[Roman legion|legions]], each of 4,200 infantry{{#tag:ref|This could be increased to 5,000 in some circumstances.{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=23}}|group=note}} and 300 cavalry. A small number of the infantry served as [[javelin]]-armed [[velites|skirmishers]]. The balance were equipped as [[heavy infantry]], with [[Body armor|body armour]], a large [[Scutum (shield)|shield]], and [[Gladius|short thrusting swords]]. They were divided into three ranks, of which the [[hastati|front rank]] also carried two javelins, while the [[principes|second]] and [[triari|third]] ranks had a [[Hasta (spear)|thrusting spear]] instead. Both legionary [[Maniple (military unit)|sub-units]] and individual [[legionary|legionaries]] fought in relatively open order. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their [[Socii|Latin allies]].{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|pp=22–25}}

Carthaginian citizens served in their army only if there was a direct threat to the city. In most circumstances Carthage recruited foreigners to make up its army. Many would be from North Africa which provided several types of fighters including: [[Close order formation|close-order]] infantry equipped with large shields, helmets, short swords and long thrusting [[spear]]s; javelin-armed light infantry skirmishers; close-order shock cavalry{{#tag:ref|"Shock" troops are those trained and used to close rapidly with an opponent, with the intention of breaking them before or immediately upon contact.{{sfn|Jones|1987|p=1}}|group=note}} (also known as "heavy cavalry") carrying spears; and light cavalry skirmishers who threw javelins from a distance and avoided close combat.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=80}} Both Spain and [[Gaul]] provided experienced infantry; unarmoured troops who would charge ferociously, but had a reputation for breaking off if a combat was protracted.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}}{{#tag:ref|The Spanish used a heavy throwing spear which the Romans were later to adopt as the {{lang|la|[[pilum]]}}.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}|group=note}} Most of the Carthaginian infantry would fight in a tightly packed formation known as a [[phalanx]], usually forming two or three lines.{{sfn|Koon|2015|p=80}} Specialist [[Balearic slinger|slingers]] were recruited from the Balearic Islands.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=32}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=8}} The Carthaginians also employed [[war elephant]]s; North Africa had indigenous [[African forest elephant]]s at the time.{{#tag:ref|These elephants were typically about {{convert|2.5|m|ft|sigfig=1|adj=mid|-high}} at the shoulder, and should not be confused with the larger [[African bush elephant]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=240}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Bagnall|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|p=27}} The sources are not clear as to whether they carried towers containing fighting men.{{sfn|Sabin|1996|p=70, n. 76}}

=== Navies ===

[[Quinqueremes]], meaning "five-oared",{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=98}} provided the workhorse of the Roman and Carthaginian fleets throughout the [[Punic Wars]].{{sfn|Lazenby|1996|pp=27–28}} So ubiquitous was the type that Polybius uses it as a shorthand for "warship" in general.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=104}} A quinquereme carried a crew of 300: 280 oarsmen and 20 deck crew and officers.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|p=100}} It would also normally carry a complement of 40 marines{{snd}}usually soldiers assigned to the ship{{sfn|Tipps|1985|p=435}}{{snd}}if battle was thought to be imminent this would be increased to as many as 120.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=102–103}}

[[File:Corvus.svg|left|thumb|upright=0.85|alt=A diagram showing the location and usage of a {{lang|la|corvus}} on a Roman galley.|{{center|The ''[[corvus (weapon)|corvus]]'', the Roman [[Naval boarding|ship boarding]] device}}]]

Getting the oarsmen to row as a unit, let alone to execute more complex battle manoeuvres, required long and arduous training.{{sfn|Casson|1995|pp=278–280}} At least half of the oarsmen would need to have had some experience if the ship was to be handled effectively.{{sfn|de Souza|2008|p=358}} As a result, the Romans were initially at a disadvantage against the more experienced Carthaginians. To counter this, the Romans introduced the [[corvus (weapon)|''corvus'']], a bridge {{convert|1.2|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} wide and {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=off}} long, with a heavy spike on the underside of the free end, which was designed to pierce and anchor into an enemy ship's deck.{{sfn|Casson|1995|p=121}} This allowed Roman legionaries acting as marines to [[Naval boarding|board enemy ships]] and capture them, rather than employing the previously [[Naval tactics in the Age of Galleys|traditional tactic]] of [[ramming]].{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}

All warships were equipped with rams, a triple set of {{convert|60|cm|ft|sigfig=1|adj=mid |-wide }} bronze blades weighing up to {{convert|270|kg|lb|sigfig=2}} positioned at the waterline. In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the [[Hellenistic-era warships|larger and heavier vessels]] adopted in this period lacked the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram, while their sturdier construction reduced the ram's effect even in case of a successful attack. The Roman adaptation of the {{lang|la|corvus}} was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions the {{lang|la|corvus}} became useless.{{sfn|Miles|2011|p=178}}{{sfn|Wallinga|1956|pp=77–90}}{{sfn|Goldsworthy|2006|pp=100–101, 103}}