Editing Federalist Party (section)

==History==
===Origins (1789–92)===
{{Further|First Party System}}[[File:Political Parties Derivation in the United States.svg|thumb|400px|Political parties derivation. Dotted line means unofficially.|center]]

Upon taking office in 1789, President Washington nominated his wartime chief of staff [[Alexander Hamilton]] to the new office of [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]. Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility, and he proposed the ambitious [[Hamiltonian economic program]] that involved the assumption of the state debts incurred during the American Revolution. This created a national debt and the means to pay it off, and it set up a national bank along with tariffs, with James Madison playing major roles in the program. Parties were considered to be divisive and harmful to republicanism,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hamilton |first1=Alexander |title=The federalist papers |date=2020 |publisher=Open Road Integrated Media |location=New York, NY |isbn=9781504060998 |page=49}}</ref> and no similar parties existed anywhere in the world.<ref name="Chambers, 1963">Chambers, William Nisbet (1963). ''Political Parties in a New Nation''.</ref>

By 1789, Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition (a "Pro-Administration" faction), realizing the need for vocal political support in the states. He formed connections with like-minded nationalists and used his network of treasury agents to link together friends of the government, especially merchants and bankers, in the new nation's dozen major cities. His attempts to manage politics in the national capital to get his plans through Congress brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a national faction and then as the new Federalist Party.<ref>Chambers, William Nisbet (1963). ''Parties in a New Nation''. pp. 39–40.</ref> The Federalist Party supported Hamilton's vision of a strong centralized government and agreed with his proposals for a national bank and heavy government subsidies. In foreign affairs, they supported [[Proclamation of Neutrality|neutrality]] in the [[French Revolutionary Wars|war between France and Great Britain]].<ref>Miller, John C. (1960). ''The Federalist Era 1789–1801''. pp 210–228.</ref>

[[File:Alexander Hamilton portrait by John Trumbull 1806.jpg|thumb|A portrait of [[Alexander Hamilton]] by [[John Trumbull]], 1806]]

Hamilton proposed to fund the national and state debts, and Madison and [[John J. Beckley]] began organizing a party to oppose it. This "[[Anti-Administration party|Anti-Administration]]" faction became what is now called the [[Democratic-Republican Party]], led by Madison and Thomas Jefferson.<ref>Miller, John C. (1960). ''The Federalist Era 1789–1801''. pp 84–98.</ref> This party attracted many Anti-Federalists who were wary of a centralized government.

===Rise (1793–96)===
By the early 1790s, newspapers started calling Hamilton supporters "Federalists" and their opponents "Republicans", "Jeffersonians", or "Democratic-Republicans". Jefferson's supporters usually called themselves "Republicans" and their party the "Republican Party".<ref>"Democrat" became a negative term after 1793, with the Terror in the French Revolution; this lasted until the middle of Madison's presidency, and the Federalists continued to use it to describe their opponents. Dahl, Robert A. (2005). "James Madison: Republican or Democrat?". ''Perspectives on Politics''. 3#3: 439–448. Malone, Dumas. ''Jefferson''. 3:162.</ref> The Federalist Party became popular with businessmen and New Englanders, as Republicans were mostly farmers who opposed a strong central government. Cities were usually Federalist strongholds, whereas frontier regions were heavily Republican.<ref>Manning J. Dauer, ''The Adams Federalists'', chapter 2.</ref> The [[Congregationalism in the United States|Congregationalists]] of New England and the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopalians]] in the larger cities supported the Federalists, while other minority denominations tended toward the Republican camp. Urban Catholics were generally Federalists.<ref>Renzulli, L. Marx (1973). ''Maryland: The Federalist Years''. p 142, 183, 295.</ref>

The state networks of both parties began to operate in 1794 or 1795, and patronage became a factor. The winner-takes-all election system opened a wide gap between winners, who got all the patronage, and losers who got none. Hamilton had many lucrative Treasury jobs to dispense—there were 1,700 of them by 1801.<ref>White, Leonard D. (1948). ''The Federalists. A Study in Administrative History''. p 123.</ref> Jefferson had one part-time job in the State Department, which he gave to journalist [[Philip Freneau]] to attack the Federalists. In New York, [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] won the election for governor and used the vast state patronage fund to help the Republican cause.

Washington tried and failed to moderate the feud between his two top cabinet members.<ref name="ReferenceA">Miller, ''The Federalist Era 1789–1801'' (1960).</ref> He was re-elected without opposition in [[U.S. presidential election, 1792|1792]]. The Democratic-Republicans nominated New York's Governor Clinton to replace Federalist [[John Adams]] as vice president, but Adams won. The balance of power in Congress was close, with some members still undecided between the parties. In early 1793, Jefferson secretly prepared resolutions introduced by Virginia Congressman [[William Branch Giles]] designed to repudiate Hamilton and weaken the Washington Administration.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 2947173|title = Thomas Jefferson and the Giles Resolutions|journal = The William and Mary Quarterly|volume = 49|issue = 4|pages = 589–608|last1 = Sheridan|first1 = Eugene R.|year = 1992|doi = 10.2307/2947173}}</ref> Hamilton defended his administration of the nation's complicated financial affairs, which none of his critics could decipher until the arrival in Congress of Republican [[Albert Gallatin]] in 1793.

Federalists counterattacked by claiming that the Hamiltonian program had restored national prosperity, as shown in one 1792 anonymous newspaper essay:<ref>''The Gazette of United States'', 5 September 1792 in Beard, Charles A. (1915). ''Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy''. p. 231.</ref> 
<blockquote>To what physical, moral, or political energy shall this flourishing state of things be ascribed? There is but one answer to these inquiries: Public credit is restored and established. The general government, by uniting and calling into action the pecuniary resources of the states, has created a new capital stock of several millions of dollars, which, with that before existing, is directed into every branch of business, giving life and vigor to industry in its infinitely diversified operation. The enemies of the general government, the funding act and the National Bank may bellow tyranny, aristocracy, and speculators through the Union and repeat the clamorous din as long as they please; but the actual state of agriculture and commerce, the peace, the contentment and satisfaction of the great mass of people, give the lie to their assertions.</blockquote>

Jefferson wrote on 12 February 1798: 
{{blockquote|Two political Sects have arisen within the U. S. the one believing that the executive is the branch of our government which the most needs support; the other that like the analogous branch in the English Government, it is already too strong for the republican parts of the Constitution; and therefore in equivocal cases they incline to the legislative powers: the former of these are called federalists, sometimes aristocrats or monocrats, and sometimes tories, after the corresponding sect in the English Government of exactly the same definition: the latter are stiled republicans, whigs, jacobins, anarchists, disorganizers, etc. these terms are in familiar use with most persons.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1833690|title = A Letter of Jefferson on the Political Parties, 1798|journal = The American Historical Review|volume = 3|issue = 3|pages = 488–489|year = 1898|doi = 10.2307/1833690}}</ref>}}

====French Revolution====
The [[French Revolution]] and the subsequent war between royalist Britain and republican France decisively shaped American politics in 1793–1800 and threatened to entangle the country in wars that "mortally threatened its very existence".<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, ch 8; Sharp (1993) p. 70 for quote</ref> The French revolutionaries [[Execution of Louis XVI|guillotined]] King [[Louis XVI]] in January 1793, and subsequently declared war on Britain. The French king had been decisive in helping the United States achieve independence, but now he was dead and many of the pro-American aristocrats in France were exiled or executed. Federalists warned that American republicans threatened to replicate the horrors of the French Revolution and successfully mobilized most conservatives and many clergymen. The Republicans, some of whom had been strong Francophiles, responded with support even through the [[Reign of Terror]], when thousands were guillotined, though it was at this point that many began backing away from their pro-France leanings.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick pp. 314–16 on Jefferson's favorable responses.</ref> Many of those executed had been friends of the United States, such as the [[Charles Henri Hector, Count of Estaing|Comte D'Estaing]], whose fleet had fought alongside the Americans in the Revolution ([[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette|Lafayette]] had already fled into exile, and [[Thomas Paine]] went to prison in France). The republicans denounced Hamilton, Adams and even Washington as friends of Britain, as secret [[monarchism|monarchists]], [[aristocracy|aristocrats]] and as enemies of the republican values. The level of rhetoric reached a fever pitch.<ref>Marshall Smelser, "The Federalist Period as an Age of Passion," ''American Quarterly'' 10 (Winter 1958), 391–459.</ref><ref name = "Smelser">Smelser, "The Jacobin Phrenzy: Federalism and the Menace of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity," ''Review of Politics'' 13 (1951) 457–82.</ref>

In 1793, Paris sent a new minister, [[Edmond-Charles Genêt]] (known as ''Citizen Genêt''), who systematically mobilized pro-French sentiment and encouraged Americans to support France's war against Britain and Spain. Genêt funded local [[Democratic-Republican Societies]] that attacked Federalists.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, ''Age of Federalism'', pp 451–61</ref> He hoped for a favorable new treaty and for repayment of the debts owed to France. Acting aggressively, Genêt outfitted [[privateer]]s that sailed with American crews under a French flag and attacked British shipping. He tried to organize expeditions of Americans to invade Spanish Louisiana and Spanish Florida. When Secretary of State Jefferson told Genêt he was pushing American friendship past the limit, Genêt threatened to go over the government's head and rouse public opinion on behalf of France. Even Jefferson agreed this was blatant foreign interference in domestic politics. Genêt's extremism seriously embarrassed the Jeffersonians and cooled popular support for promoting the French Revolution and getting involved in its wars. Recalled to Paris for execution, Genêt kept his head and instead went to New York, where he became a citizen and married the daughter of Governor Clinton.<ref>Eugene R. Sheridan,  "The Recall of Edmond Charles Genet: A Study in Transatlantic Politics and Diplomacy". ''Diplomatic History'' 18#4 (1994), 463–68.</ref> Jefferson left office, ending the coalition cabinet and allowing the Federalists to dominate.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 330–65.</ref>

The [[Jay Treaty]] battle in 1794–1795 was the effort by Washington, Hamilton and [[John Jay]] to resolve numerous difficulties with Britain. Some of these issues dated to the Revolution, such as boundaries, debts owed in each direction and the continued presence of British forts in the [[Northwest Ordinance|Northwest Territory]]. In addition, the United States hoped to open markets in the British Caribbean and end disputes stemming from the naval war between Britain and France. Most of all the goal was to avert a war with Britain—a war opposed by the Federalists, that some historians claim the Jeffersonians wanted.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 375–406.</ref>

As a neutral party, the United States argued it had the right to carry goods anywhere it wanted. The British nevertheless seized American ships carrying goods from the [[French West Indies]]. The Federalists favored Britain in the war and by far most of America's foreign trade was with Britain, hence a new treaty was called for. The British agreed to evacuate the western forts, open their West Indies ports to American ships, allow small vessels to trade with the French West Indies and set up a commission that would adjudicate American claims against Britain for seized ships and British claims against Americans for debts incurred before 1775. One possible alternative was war with Britain, a war that the United States was ill-prepared to fight.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 406–50.</ref>

The Republicans wanted to pressure Britain to the brink of war (and assumed that the United States could defeat a weak Britain).<ref>Miller (1960) p. 149.</ref> Therefore, they denounced the Jay Treaty as an insult to American prestige, a repudiation of the American-French alliance of 1777 and a severe shock to Southern planters who owed those old debts and who would now be never compensated for their escaped slaves who fled to British lines for their freedom. Republicans protested against the treaty and organized their supporters. The Federalists realized they had to mobilize their popular vote, so they mobilized their newspapers, held rallies, counted votes and especially relied on the prestige of President Washington. The contest over the Jay Treaty marked the first flowering of grassroots political activism in the United States, directed and coordinated by two national parties. Politics was no longer the domain of politicians as every voter was called on to participate. The new strategy of appealing directly to the public worked for the Federalists as public opinion shifted to support the Jay Treaty.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 3125063|title = Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate|journal = Journal of the Early Republic|volume = 20|issue = 3|pages = 393–422|last1 = Estes|first1 = Todd|year = 2000|doi = 10.2307/3125063}}</ref> The Federalists controlled the Senate and they ratified it by exactly the necessary two-thirds vote vote (20–10) in 1795. However, the Republicans did not give up and public opinion swung toward the Republicans after the Treaty fight and in the South the Federalists lost most of the support they had among planters.<ref>Sharp 113–37.</ref>

====Whiskey Rebellion====
{{Main|Whiskey Rebellion}}
The [[excise tax]] of 1791 caused grumbling from the frontier including threats of [[tax resistance]]. Corn, the chief crop on the frontier, was too bulky to ship over the mountains to market unless it was first distilled into whiskey. This was profitable as the United States population consumed per capita relatively large quantities of liquor. After the excise tax, the backwoodsmen complained the tax fell on them rather than on the consumers. Cash poor, they were outraged that they had been singled out to pay off the "financiers and speculators" back in the East and to pay the salaries of the federal revenue officers who began to swarm the hills looking for illegal stills.<ref>Miller (1960) pp. 155–62</ref>

Insurgents in western Pennsylvania shut the courts and hounded federal officials, but Jeffersonian leader [[Albert Gallatin]] mobilized the western moderates and thus forestalled a serious outbreak. Washington, seeing the need to assert federal supremacy, called out 13,000 state militia and marched toward [[Washington, Pennsylvania]] to suppress this [[Whiskey Rebellion]]. The rebellion evaporated in late 1794 as Washington approached, personally leading the army (only two sitting Presidents have directly led American military forces, Washington during the Whiskey Rebellion and Madison in an attempt to save the White House during the [[War of 1812]]). The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting. Federalists were relieved that the new government proved capable of overcoming rebellion while Republicans, with Gallatin their new hero, argued there never was a real rebellion and the whole episode was manipulated in order to accustom Americans to a [[standing army]].

Angry petitions flowed in from three dozen [[Democratic-Republican Societies]] created by Citizen Genêt. Washington attacked the societies as illegitimate and many disbanded. Federalists now ridiculed Republicans as "democrats" (meaning in favor of [[Ochlocracy|mob rule]]) or "[[Jacobins]]" (a reference to the [[Reign of Terror]] in France).

Washington refused to run for a third term, establishing a two-term precedent that was to stand until 1940 and eventually to be enshrined in the Constitution as the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd Amendment]]. He warned in his [[Washington's Farewell Address|Farewell Address]] against involvement in European wars and lamented the rising north–south sectionalism and party spirit in politics that threatened national unity: <blockquote>The party spirits serves always to distract the Public Councils, and enfeeble the Public Administration. It agitates the Community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find a facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another.</blockquote>

Washington never considered himself a member of any party, but broadly supported most Federalist policies.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of the Federal Judiciary|url=http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/tu_sedbio_fr.html}}</ref>

===Adams's administration (1797–1800)===
{{main|John Adams}}
[[File:Gilbert Stuart, John Adams, c. 1800-1815, NGA 42933.jpg|thumb|Gilbert Stuart, ''John Adams'', c. 1800-1815]]
Hamilton distrusted Vice President Adams—who felt the same way about Hamilton—but was unable to block his claims to the succession. The [[1796 United States presidential election|election of 1796]] was the first partisan affair in the nation's history and one of the more scurrilous in terms of newspaper attacks. Adams swept New England and Jefferson the South, with the middle states leaning to Adams. Adams was the winner by a margin of three [[United States Electoral College|electoral votes]] and Jefferson, as the runner-up, became vice president under the system set out in the Constitution prior to the ratification of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|12th Amendment]].<ref>Bernard A. Weisberger, ''America afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the first contested election'' (Perennial, 2001).</ref>

The Federalists were strongest in New England, but also had strengths in the middle states. They elected Adams as president in 1796, when they controlled both houses of Congress, the presidency, eight state legislatures and ten governorships.<ref>Philip J. Lampi, "The Federalist Party Resurgence, 1808–1816: Evidence from the New Nation Votes Database." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 33.2 (2013): 255–281.</ref>

Foreign affairs continued to be the central concern of American politics, for the war raging in Europe threatened to drag in the United States. Historian Sarah Kreps in 2018 argues the Federalist faction led by President Adams during the 1798 Quasi-War could correspond to "today's right-of-center party."<ref>Sarah Kreps, ''Taxing Wars: The American Way of War Finance and the Decline of Democracy'' (Oxford University Press, 2018) p. 53 and chapter 3.</ref>

The new president was a loner, who made decisions without consulting Hamilton or other "High Federalists". Benjamin Franklin once quipped that Adams was a man always honest, often brilliant and sometimes mad. Adams was popular among the Federalist rank and file, but had neglected to build state or local political bases of his own and neglected to take control of his own cabinet. As a result, his cabinet answered more to Hamilton than to himself. Hamilton was especially popular because he rebuilt the Army—and had commissions to give out.<ref>Richard H. Kohn, ''Eagle and sword: The Federalists and the creation of the military establishment in America, 1783–1802'' (1975).</ref>

====Alien and Sedition Acts====
After an American delegation was insulted in Paris in the [[XYZ affair]] (1797), public opinion ran strongly against the French. An undeclared "[[Quasi-War]]" with France from 1798 to 1800 saw each side attacking and capturing the other's shipping. It was called "quasi" because there was no declaration of war, but escalation was a serious threat. At the peak of their popularity, the Federalists took advantage by preparing for an invasion by the French Army. To silence Administration critics, the Federalists passed the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]] in 1798. The Alien Act empowered the President to deport such aliens as he declared to be dangerous. The Sedition Act made it a crime to print false, scandalous and malicious criticisms of the federal government, but it conspicuously failed to criminalize criticism of Vice President Thomas Jefferson.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1898365|title = President John Adams, Thomas Cooper, and Sedition: A Case Study in Suppression|journal = The Mississippi Valley Historical Review|volume = 42|issue = 3|pages = 438–465|last1 = Smith|first1 = James Morton|year = 1955|doi = 10.2307/1898365}}</ref>

Several Republican newspaper editors were convicted under the Act and fined or jailed and three Democratic-Republican newspapers were shut down.<ref>Marc A. Franklin, David A. Anderson, & Lyrissa Barnett Lidsky, ''Mass Media Law'' (7th ed. 2005).</ref> In response, Jefferson and Madison secretly wrote the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]] passed by the two states' legislatures that declared the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional and insisted the states had the power to [[Nullification (U.S. Constitution)|nullify]] federal laws.

Undaunted, the Federalists created a [[United States Navy|navy]], with new [[frigate]]s; and a large new army, with Washington in nominal command and Hamilton in actual command. To pay for it all, they raised taxes on land, houses and slaves, leading to serious unrest. In one part of Pennsylvania, the [[John Fries's Rebellion|Fries' Rebellion]] broke out, with people refusing to pay the new taxes. John Fries was sentenced to death for treason, but received a pardon from Adams. In the elections of 1798, the Federalists did very well, but this issue started hurting the Federalists in 1799. Early in 1799, Adams decided to free himself from Hamilton's overbearing influence, stunning the country and throwing his party into disarray by announcing a new peace mission to France. The mission eventually succeeded, the "Quasi-War" ended and the new army was largely disbanded. Hamiltonians called Adams a failure while Adams fired Hamilton's supporters still in the cabinet.

Hamilton and Adams intensely disliked one another and the Federalists split between supporters of Hamilton (''High Federalists'') and supporters of Adams. Hamilton became embittered over his loss of political influence and wrote a scathing criticism of Adams' performance as president in an effort to throw Federalist support to [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]. Inadvertently, this split the Federalists and helped give the victory to Jefferson.<ref name="Manning Dauer 1953">Manning Dauer, ''The Adams Federalists'' (Johns Hopkins UP, 1953).</ref>

====Election of 1800====
{{main|United States presidential election, 1800}}
Adams's peace moves proved popular with the Federalist rank and file and he seemed to stand a good chance of re-election in 1800. If the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]] had not been enacted, he most likely would have won reelection since many Federalist legislatures removed the right to select electors from their constituents in fear of a Democratic victory. Jefferson was again the opponent and Federalists pulled out all stops in warning that he was a dangerous revolutionary, hostile to religion, who would weaken the government, damage the economy and get into war with Britain. Many believed that if Jefferson won the election, it would be the end of the newly formed United States. The Republicans crusaded against the Alien and Sedition laws as well as the new taxes and proved highly effective in mobilizing popular discontent.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

The election hinged on New York as its [[United States Electoral College|electors]] were selected by the [[New York State Legislature|legislature]] and given the balance of North and South, they would decide the presidential election. [[Aaron Burr]] brilliantly organized his forces in New York City in the spring elections for the state legislature. By a few hundred votes, he carried the city—and thus the state legislature—and guaranteed the election of a Republican president. As a reward, he was selected by the Republican [[caucus]] in Congress as their vice presidential candidate. Alexander Hamilton, knowing the election was lost anyway, went public with a sharp attack on Adams that further divided and weakened the Federalists.<ref>Brian Phillips Murphy, "' A Very Convenient Instrument': The Manhattan Company, Aaron Burr, and the Election of 1800." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 65.2 (2008): 233–266.</ref>

Members of the Republican Party planned to vote evenly for Jefferson and Burr because they did not want for it to seem as if their party was divided. The party took the meaning literally and Jefferson and Burr tied in the election with 73 electoral votes. This sent the election to the House of Representatives to break the tie. The Federalists had enough weight in the House to swing the election in either direction. Many would rather have seen Burr in the office over Jefferson, but Hamilton, who had a strong dislike of Burr, threw his political weight behind Jefferson. During the election, neither Jefferson nor Burr attempted to swing the election in the House of Representatives. Jefferson remained at Monticello to oversee the laying of bricks to a section of his home. Jefferson allowed for his political beliefs and other ideologies to filter out through letters to his contacts. Thanks to Hamilton's support, Jefferson would win the election and Burr would become his vice president.

The 1800 election marked the first time power had been transferred between opposing political parties, an act that occurred remarkably without bloodshed. Though there had been strong words and disagreements, contrary to the Federalists fears, there was no war and no ending of one-government system to let in a new one. His patronage policy was to let the Federalists disappear through attrition. Those Federalists such as [[John Quincy Adams]] (John Adams' own son) and [[Rufus King]] willing to work with him were rewarded with senior diplomatic posts, but there was no punishment of the opposition.<ref>Susan Dunn, ''Jefferson's second revolution: The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism'' (2004)</ref>

===Collapse (1801–06)===
[[File:Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800).jpg|thumb|President [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801–09)]]
Jefferson had a very successful first term, typified by the [[Louisiana Purchase]], which was supported by Hamilton, but opposed by most Federalists at the time as unconstitutional. Some Federalist leaders ([[Essex Junto]]) began courting Jefferson's vice president and Hamilton's nemesis Aaron Burr in an attempt to swing New York into an independent confederation with the New England states, which along with New York were supposed to secede from the United States after Burr's election to Governor. However, Hamilton's influence cost Burr the governorship of New York, a key in the Essex Junto's plan, just as Hamilton's influence had cost Burr the presidency nearly four years before. Hamilton's thwarting of Aaron Burr's ambitions for the second time was too much for Burr to bear. Hamilton had known of the Essex Junto (whom Hamilton now regarded as apostate Federalists) and Burr's plans and opposed them vehemently. This opposition by Hamilton would lead to his fatal duel with Burr in July 1804.<ref>David H. Fischer, "The Myth of the Essex Junto." ''William and Mary Quarterly'' (1964): 191–235.</ref>

The thoroughly disorganized Federalists hardly offered any opposition to Jefferson's reelection in 1804 and Federalists seemed doomed. Jefferson had taken away most of their patronage, including federal judgeships. The party now controlled only five state legislatures and seven governorships. After again losing the presidency in 1804, the party was now down to three legislatures and five governorships (four in New England). Their majorities in Congress were long gone, dropping in the Senate from 23 in 1796, and 21 in 1800 to only six in 1804.<ref>Lampi, "The Federalist Party Resurgence," p 259</ref> In New England and in some districts in the middle states, the Federalists clung to power, but the tendency from 1800 to 1812 was steady slippage almost everywhere as the Republicans perfected their organization and the Federalists tried to play catch-up. Some younger leaders tried to emulate the Democratic-Republican tactics, but their overall disdain of democracy along with the upper class bias of the party leadership eroded public support. In the South, the Federalists steadily lost ground everywhere.<ref name="Manning Dauer 1953"/>

The Federalists continued for several years to be a major political party in New England and the Northeast, but never regained control of the presidency or the Congress. With the death of Washington and Hamilton and the retirement of Adams, the Federalists were left without a strong leader as [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John Marshall]] stayed out of politics. However, a few younger leaders did appear, notably [[Daniel Webster]]. Federalist policies favored factories, banking and trade over agriculture and therefore became unpopular in the growing Western states. They were increasingly seen as aristocratic and unsympathetic to democracy. In the South, the party had lingering support in Maryland, but elsewhere was crippled by 1800 and faded away by 1808.<ref name = "GBooks">[https://books.google.com/books?id=AFS3Uu_EMQEC&dq=%22james+Monroe%22+%22republican+party%22+caucus&pg=PA112 Google Books].</ref>

Massachusetts and Connecticut remained the party strongholds. Historian Richard J. Purcell explains how well organized the party was in Connecticut:
<blockquote>It was only necessary to perfect the working methods of the organized body of office-holders who made up the nucleus of the party. There were the state officers, the assistants, and a large majority of the Assembly. In every county there was a sheriff with his deputies. All of the state, county, and town judges were potential and generally active workers. Every town had several justices of the peace, school directors and, in Federalist towns, all the town officers who were ready to carry on the party's work. Every parish had a "standing agent", whose anathemas were said to convince at least ten voting deacons. Militia officers, state's attorneys, lawyers, professors and schoolteachers were in the van of this "conscript army". In all, about a thousand or eleven hundred dependent officer-holders were described as the inner ring which could always be depended upon for their own and enough more votes within their control to decide an election. This was the Federalist machine.<ref>Richard J. Purcell, ''Connecticut in Transition: 1775–1818'' 1963. p. 190.</ref></blockquote>

After 1800, the major Federalist role came in the judiciary. Although Jefferson managed to repeal the [[Judiciary Act of 1801]] and thus dismissed many lower level Federalist federal judges, the effort to impeach Supreme Court Justice [[Samuel Chase]] in 1804 failed. Led by the last great Federalist, John Marshall as Chief Justice from 1801 to 1835, the Supreme Court carved out a unique and powerful role as the protector of the Constitution and promoter of nationalism.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 844519|title = The Jeffersonian Assault on the Federalist Judiciary, 1802-1805; Political Forces and Press Reaction|journal = The American Journal of Legal History|volume = 14|issue = 1|pages = 55–75|last1 = Knudson|first1 = Jerry W.|year = 1970|doi = 10.2307/844519}}</ref>

===Revival (1807–15)===
[[File:James Madison.jpg|thumb|President [[James Madison]] (1809–17)]]
====Embargo Act====
As the wars in Europe intensified, the United States became increasingly involved. The Federalists restored some of their strength by leading the anti-war opposition to Jefferson and Madison between 1807 and 1814. President Jefferson imposed an embargo on Britain in 1807 as the [[Embargo Act of 1807]] prevented all American ships from sailing to a foreign port. The idea was that the British were so dependent on American supplies that they would come to terms. For 15 months, the Embargo wrecked American export businesses, largely based in the Boston-New York region, causing a sharp depression in the Northeast. Evasion was common and Jefferson and Treasury Secretary Gallatin responded with tightened police controls more severe than anything the Federalists had ever proposed. Public opinion was highly negative and a surge of support breathed fresh life into the Federalist Party.<ref>Lampi, "The Federalist Party Resurgence,"</ref>

As Jefferson refrained from seeking a third term, the Republicans nominated Madison for the presidency in 1808. Meeting in the first-ever national convention, Federalists considered the option of nominating Jefferson's Vice President [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] (who represented a different Clintonian party faction from New York, had run for the Republican candidacy in 1804 and had not wanted to become vice president) as their own candidate, but balked at working with him and again chose [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]], their 1804 candidate. Madison lost New England excluding Vermont, but swept the rest of the country and carried a Republican Congress. Madison dropped the Embargo, opened up trade again and offered a carrot and stick approach. If either France or Britain agreed to stop their violations of American neutrality, the United States would cut off trade with the other country. Tricked by French Emperor [[Napoleon]] into believing France had acceded to his demands, Madison turned his wrath on Britain and the [[War of 1812]] began.<ref>James M. Banner, ''To the Hartford Convention: The Federalists and the origins of party politics in Massachusetts, 1789–1815'' (1970).</ref> Young Daniel Webster, running for Congress from New Hampshire in 1812, first gained overnight fame with his anti-war speeches.<ref>Kenneth E. Shewmaker, '"This Unblessed War': Daniel Webster's Opposition to the War of 1812" ''Historical New Hampshire'' 53#1 (1998) pp 21–45</ref>

====War of 1812====
The nation was at war during the [[1812 United States presidential election|1812 presidential election]] and war was the burning issue. Opposition to the war was strong in traditional Federalist strongholds in New England and New York, where the party made a comeback in the elections of 1812 and 1814. In their second national convention in 1812, the Federalists, now the peace party, nominated [[DeWitt Clinton]], the dissident Republican [[Mayor of New York City]] and an articulate opponent of the war, who had followed his uncle George Clinton as the leader of the Clintonian faction after his death. Madison ran for reelection promising a relentless war against Britain and an honorable peace. Clinton, denouncing Madison's weak leadership and incompetent preparations for war, could count on New England and New York. To win, he needed the middle states and there the campaign was fought out. Those states were competitive and had the best-developed local parties and most elaborate campaign techniques, including nominating conventions and formal [[party platform]]s. The [[Tammany Hall|Tammany Society]] in New York City highly favored Madison and the Federalists finally adopted the club idea in 1808. Their [[Washington Benevolent Societies]] were semi-secret membership organizations which played a critical role in every northern state as they held meetings and rallies and mobilized Federalist votes.<ref>William Alexander Robinson, "The Washington Benevolent Society in New England: a phase of politics during the War of 1812", ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'' (1916) vol 49 pp 274ff.</ref> New Jersey went for Clinton, but Madison carried Pennsylvania and thus was reelected with 59% of the electoral votes. However, the Federalists gained 14 seats in Congress.

The [[War of 1812]] went poorly for the Americans for two years. Even though Britain was concentrating its military efforts on its [[Napoleonic Wars|war with]] [[Napoleon]], the United States still failed to make any headway on land and was effectively blockaded at sea by the [[Royal Navy]]. The British raided and burned [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1814 and sent a force to capture New Orleans.

The war was especially unpopular in New England. The New England economy was highly dependent on trade and the British blockade threatened to destroy it entirely. In 1814, the British Navy finally managed to enforce their blockade on the New England coast, so the Federalists of New England sent delegates to the [[Hartford Convention]] in December 1814.

During the proceedings of the Hartford Convention, secession from the Union was discussed, though the resulting report listed a set of grievances against the Democratic-Republican federal government and proposed [[Hartford Convention#Convention report|a set of Constitutional amendments to address these grievances]]. They demanded financial assistance from Washington to compensate for lost trade and proposed constitutional amendments requiring a two-thirds vote in Congress before an embargo could be imposed, new states admitted, or war declared. It also indicated that if these proposals were ignored, then another convention should be called and given "such powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis may require". The Federalist Massachusetts Governor had already secretly sent word to England to broker a separate peace accord. Three Massachusetts "ambassadors" were sent to Washington to negotiate on the basis of this report.

By the time the Federalist "ambassadors" got to Washington, the war was over and news of [[Andrew Jackson]]'s stunning victory in the [[Battle of New Orleans]] had raised American morale immensely. The "ambassadors" hastened back to Massachusetts, but not before they had done fatal damage to the Federalist Party. The Federalists were thereafter associated with the disloyalty and parochialism of the Hartford Convention and destroyed as a political force. Across the nation, Republicans used the great victory at New Orleans to ridicule the Federalists as cowards, defeatists and secessionists. Pamphlets, songs, newspaper editorials, speeches and entire plays on the Battle of New Orleans drove home the point.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 42628249|title = "It Taught our Enemies a Lesson:" the Battle of New Orleans and the Republican Destruction of the Federalist Party|journal = Tennessee Historical Quarterly|volume = 71|issue = 2|pages = 112–127|last1 = Stoltz|first1 = Joseph F.|year = 2012}}</ref>

===Decline (1816–28)===
The Federalists fielded their last presidential candidate, [[Rufus King]] in [[U.S. presidential election, 1816|1816]]. With the party's passing, partisan hatreds and newspaper feuds declined and the nation entered the "[[Era of Good Feelings]]". Federalism in states like Massachusetts gradually blended into the conservative wing of the Democratic-Republicans. In the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]], New Englanders from both parties supported Adams, a native of the region. However, a few old Federalist leaders, who never forgave Adams for abandoning them, formed a ticket of [[unpledged elector]]s with [[Tertium quids|radical Democratic-Republicans]]. This ticket was overwhelmingly defeated and likely would have voted for [[William H. Crawford|Crawford]].<ref name=":Morison">{{Cite book |last=Morison |first=Samuel Eliot |title=Harrison Gray Otis, 1765-1848: The Urbane Federalist |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1969 |isbn=9780395080238 |pages=443–446}}</ref>

Following 1824, no Federalist ran for governor of any state and most left for the [[National Republican Party|National Republicans]]. After the dissolution of the [[18th United States Congress|final Federalist congressional caucus]] in 1825, the last traces of Federalist activity came in Delaware and Massachusetts local politics in the late 1820s. In other states there still technically existed Federalists (for example [[James Buchanan]]) but they were engaged in patronage with either Jackson or Adams. In Massachusetts, the Federalist Party ceased to function as a state organization in 1825, surviving only as a local Boston group for the next three years.<ref name=":Morison" /> In Delaware, the Federalist Party lasted until 1826 and controlled the [[Delaware House of Representatives]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dubin |first=Michael J. |title=Party Affiliations in the State Legislatures: A Year by Year Summary, 1796-2006 |publisher=McFarland & Company |year=2007 |isbn=9780786429141 |pages=39}}</ref> When [[Daniel Webster]], representative of Boston, resigned in 1827 to [[1826–27 United States Senate elections|run for U.S. Senator]], a caucus of Federalists met in Boston to nominate his replacement. A young [[William Lloyd Garrison]] persuaded the caucus to choose the Federalist [[Harrison Gray Otis (politician)|Harrison Gray Otis]], who ultimately declined. The caucus then nominated the [[National Republican Party|Anti-Jacksonian]] [[Benjamin Gorham]], their original choice.<ref name=":Morison" />

In the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 presidential election]], the Federalists were used as a scapegoat in Boston. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] Boston ''Statesman'' accused Adams of being a secret Hartford Federalist attempting to revive the "reign of terror" under his father. Adams responded by accusing the old Hartford Federalists of treason and attempting to dissolve the union to form their own confederation. The ''Jackson Republican'', an ally of the Statesman and founded by former Federalist [[Theodore Lyman II]], implicated Webster among the old Federalists Adams intended to impugn, leading to a libel suit. As a protest against Adams, several "Federal young men" who had been supporting Adams nominated a Federalist ticket of presidential electors. This ticket, headed by Otis and [[William Prescott Jr.]] and including three other members of the Hartford Convention, garnered a pitiful 156 votes in Boston and none elsewhere in the state. As with the previous election, Adams swept the city and state.<ref name=":Morison" />

That ticket, according to the best of knowledge of [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], was "the last ticket ever voted for that bore the name of the once powerful party of Washington and Hamilton."<ref name=":Morison" />