Editing Evidence-based medicine (section)

=== Clinical decision-making ===
[[Alvan Feinstein]]'s publication of ''Clinical Judgment'' in 1967 focused attention on the role of clinical reasoning and identified biases that can affect it.<ref name="feinstein">{{cite book |author=Alvan R. Feinstein |title=Clinical Judgement |year=1967 |publisher=Williams & Wilkins}}</ref> In 1972, [[Archie Cochrane]] published ''Effectiveness and Efficiency'', which described the lack of controlled trials supporting many practices that had previously been assumed to be effective.<ref name="cochraneal">{{cite book |author=Cochrane A.L. |author-link= Archie Cochrane |title=Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services |year=1972 |publisher=Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust}}</ref> In 1973, [[John Wennberg]] began to document wide variations in how physicians practiced.<ref name="wennberg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wennberg J | title = Small area variations in health care delivery | journal = Science | volume = 182 | issue = 4117 | pages = 1102–1108 | date = December 1973 | pmid = 4750608 | doi = 10.1126/science.182.4117.1102 | s2cid = 43819003 | bibcode = 1973Sci...182.1102W }}</ref> Through the 1980s, [[David M. Eddy]] described errors in clinical reasoning and gaps in evidence.<ref name="eddy2">{{cite book | vauthors = Eddy DM |chapter=18 Probabilistic Reasoning in Clinical Medicine: Problems and Opportunities | veditors = Kahneman D, Slovic P, Tversky A |title=Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0H8gwj4a1MC&pg=PA249 |date=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-28414-1 |pages=249–267}}</ref><ref name="eddy3">{{cite journal | vauthors = Eddy DM | title = Clinical policies and the quality of clinical practice | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 307 | issue = 6 | pages = 343–347 | date = August 1982 | pmid = 7088099 | doi = 10.1056/nejm198208053070604 }}</ref><ref name="eddy4">{{cite journal | vauthors = Eddy DM | title = Variations in physician practice: the role of uncertainty | journal = Health Affairs | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 74–89 | year = 1984 | pmid = 6469198 | doi = 10.1377/hlthaff.3.2.74 }}</ref><ref name="eddy5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Eddy DM, Billings J | title = The quality of medical evidence: implications for quality of care | journal = Health Affairs | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 19–32 | date = 1988 | pmid = 3360391 | doi = 10.1377/hlthaff.7.1.19 | doi-access =  }}</ref> In the mid-1980s, Alvin Feinstein, [[David Sackett]] and others published textbooks on clinical [[epidemiology]], which translated epidemiological methods to physician decision-making.<ref name="feinstein2">{{cite book|author=Feinstein AR|title=Clinical Epidemiology: The Architecture of Clinical Research|date=1985|publisher=W.B. Saunders Company |isbn=978-0-7216-1308-6}}</ref><ref name="sackett">{{cite book | vauthors = Sackett D | veditors = Haynes BR |title=Clinical Epidemiology: How to Do Clinical Practice Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuvY6TItIwgC&pg=PA59 |year=2006 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-7817-4524-6}}</ref> Toward the end of the 1980s, a group at [[RAND]] showed that large proportions of procedures performed by physicians were considered inappropriate even by the standards of their own experts.<ref name="chassin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chassin MR, Kosecoff J, Solomon DH, Brook RH | title = How coronary angiography is used. Clinical determinants of appropriateness | journal = JAMA | volume = 258 | issue = 18 | pages = 2543–2547 | date = November 1987 | pmid = 3312657 | doi = 10.1001/jama.258.18.2543 }}</ref>