Editing Empress Matilda (section)

==Holy Roman Empire==

===Marriage and coronation===
[[File:Matilda jidnrichInem.jpg|thumb|alt=Picture of the Empress Matilda|12th-century depiction of Matilda and Henry's wedding feast]]

In late 1108 or early 1109, [[Henry V of Germany]] sent envoys to Normandy proposing that Matilda marry him, and wrote separately to her mother on the same matter.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=15–16}}</ref> The match was attractive to the English king: his daughter would be marrying into one of the most prestigious dynasties in Europe, reaffirming his own, slightly questionable, status as the youngest son of a new royal house, and gaining him an ally in dealing with France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leyser|1982|pp=195–197}}; {{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=16}}</ref> In return, Henry V would receive a dowry of 10,000 [[mark (money)|marks]], which he needed to fund an [[Italienzug|expedition to Rome]] for his [[coronation as Holy Roman emperor]].<ref name=Chibnall1991P16>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=16}}</ref> The final details of the deal were negotiated at [[Westminster]] in June 1109 and, as a result of her changing status, Matilda attended a royal council for the first time that October.<ref name=Chibnall1991P16/> She left England in February 1110 to make her way to Germany.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=16–17}}</ref>

The couple met at [[Liège]] before travelling to [[Utrecht]] where, on 10 April, they became officially betrothed.<ref name="p8 Pain">{{Harvnb|Pain|1978|p=8}}</ref> On 25 July Matilda was crowned [[German queen]] in a ceremony at [[Mainz]].<ref name=Chibnall24>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=24}}</ref> There was a considerable age gap between the couple, as Matilda was only eight years old while Henry was 24.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=17}}</ref> After the betrothal she was placed into the custody of Archbishop [[Bruno of Trier]], who was tasked with educating her in German culture, manners and government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=25}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Pain|1978|p=12}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/18338 | title=Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), Empress, Consort of Heinrich V |mode=cs2| access-date=22 December 2013 | last1= Chibnall| first1= Marjorie | website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher=Oxford University Press | year = 2004–2013 }}</ref>{{refn|The account of the dismissal of Matilda's retinue comes from the chronicler [[Orderic Vitalis]], but other evidence suggests that at least some of her companions stayed with her.<ref name=ODNB/>|group="nb"}} In January 1114 Matilda was ready to be married to Henry, and their wedding was held at the city of [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] amid extravagant celebrations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=26}}</ref> Matilda now entered public life in Germany, complete with her own household.<ref name="Chibnall 1991 26, 48">{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=26, 48}}</ref>

Political conflict broke out across the empire shortly after the marriage, triggered when Henry arrested his chancellor, Archbishop [[Adalbert I of Mainz|Adalbert of Mainz]], and various other German princes.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=27}}</ref> Rebellions followed, accompanied by opposition from within the Church, which played an important part in administering the Empire, and this led to Henry's formal excommunication by [[Pope Paschal II]].<ref name=Chibnall1991P28>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=28}}</ref> Henry and Matilda marched over the [[Alps]] into Italy in early 1116, intent on settling matters permanently with the Pope.<ref name=Chibnall1991P28/> Matilda was now playing a full part in the imperial government, sponsoring royal grants, dealing with petitioners and taking part in ceremonial occasions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=28–29}}</ref> The rest of the year was spent establishing control of northern Italy, and in early 1117 the couple advanced on Rome itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=29–31}}</ref>

Paschal fled when Henry and Matilda arrived with their army, and in his absence the papal envoy [[Maurice Bourdin]] crowned the couple at [[St Peter's Basilica]], probably that Easter and certainly (again) at [[Pentecost]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=32}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/18338 | title=Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), Empress, Consort of Heinrich V |mode=cs2| access-date=22 December 2013 | last1= Chibnall| first1= Marjorie | website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher=Oxford University Press | year = 2004–2013 }}</ref> Matilda used these ceremonies to claim the title of [[empress of the Holy Roman Empire]]. The Empire was governed by monarchs who, like Henry V, had been elected by the major nobles to become the king. These kings typically hoped to be subsequently crowned by the pope as emperors, but this could not be guaranteed. Henry V had coerced Paschal II into crowning him in 1111, but Matilda's own status was less clear.<ref name=Chibnall1991P32>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=32}}</ref> As a result of her marriage to the [[King of the Romans]] she was clearly the legitimate Queen of the Romans, a title that she used thereafter on her seal and charters, but it was uncertain if she had a legitimate claim to the title of empress.<ref name=Chibnall1991P32/> After his imperial coronation in 1111, Henry continued to call himself king and emperor of the Romans interchangeably.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128|title=Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), Empress, Consort of Heinrich V|last1=Chibnall|first1=Marjorie|year=2004|website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=8 April 2020|mode=cs2}}</ref>

Both Bourdin's status and the ceremonies themselves were deeply ambiguous. Strictly speaking, the ceremonies were not imperial coronations but instead were formal "crown-wearing" occasions, among the few times in the year when the rulers would wear their crowns in court.<ref name="oxforddnb.com">{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=32–33}}; {{Harvnb|Leyser|1982|p=199}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/18338 | title=Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), Empress, Consort of Heinrich V |mode=cs2| access-date=22 December 2013 | last1= Chibnall| first1= Marjorie | website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher=Oxford University Press | year = 2004–2013 }}</ref> Bourdin had also been [[excommunicated]] by the time he conducted the second ceremony, and he was later deposed and imprisoned for life by [[Pope Callixtus II]].<ref name="oxforddnb.com"/> Nonetheless, Matilda maintained that she had been officially crowned as the empress in Rome.<ref name="oxforddnb.com"/> Her use of the title became widely accepted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=33}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128|title=Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), Empress, Consort of Heinrich V|last1=Chibnall|first1=Marjorie|year=2004|website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=8 April 2020|mode=cs2}}</ref> She consistently used the title empress from 1117 until her death; chanceries and chroniclers alike conceded her the honorific, seemingly without question.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=32–33}}; {{cite web|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128|title=Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), Empress, Consort of Heinrich V|last1=Chibnall|first1=Marjorie|year=2004|website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=8 April 2020|mode=cs2}}</ref>

===Widowhood===
In 1118, Henry returned north over the Alps into Germany to suppress fresh rebellions, leaving Matilda as his [[regent]] to govern Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=33}}</ref>{{refn|Matilda's role in government in Germany was not unusual for the period; German emperors and princes frequently delegated administrative and military duties to their wives.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=29}}</ref>|group="nb"}} There are few records of her rule over the next two years, but she probably gained considerable practical experience of government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=33–34}}</ref> In 1119, she returned north to meet Henry in [[Lotharingia]].<ref name=Chibnall1991P34>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=34}}</ref> Her husband was occupied in finding a compromise with the Pope, who had excommunicated him.<ref name=Chibnall1991P34/> In 1122, Henry and probably Matilda were at the [[Concordat of Worms|Council of Worms]].<ref name=Chibnall1991PP36/> The council settled the [[Investiture Controversy|long-running dispute]] with the Church when Henry gave up his rights to invest bishops with their episcopal regalia.<ref name=Chibnall1991PP36>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=36–38}}</ref> Matilda attempted to visit her father in England that year, but the journey was blocked by Count [[Charles I of Flanders]], whose territory she would have needed to pass through.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=38–40}}</ref> Historian [[Marjorie Chibnall]] argues Matilda had intended to discuss the inheritance of the English crown on this journey.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=38}}</ref>

The couple remained childless, but neither party was considered to be infertile and contemporary chroniclers blamed their situation on the Emperor and his sins against the Church.<ref name="Chibnall 40">{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=40}}</ref>{{refn|The chronicler [[Hermann of Tournai]] gives an account that Matilda gave birth to a child who died, but this is uncorroborated. The writer seems to wish to convey an unfavorable assessment of the character of Matilda's mother, who had allegedly once been a nun, thereby cursing her marriage.<ref name="Chibnall 40"/>|group="nb"}} In early 1122, they travelled down the [[Rhine]] together as Henry continued to suppress the ongoing political unrest, but by now he was suffering from cancer.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=39}}</ref> He died on 23 May 1125 in Utrecht, leaving Matilda in the protection of their nephew [[Frederick II of Swabia]], the heir to his estates, and in possession of the imperial insignia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=39, 41}}</ref> It is unclear what instructions he gave her about the future of the Empire, which faced another leadership election.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=41}}</ref> Archbishop Adalbert subsequently convinced Matilda that she should give him the insignia, and led the electoral process which appointed [[Lothair of Supplinburg]], a former enemy of Henry, as the new king.<ref name=Chibnall1991P43>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|p=43}}</ref>

Now aged 23, Matilda had only limited options as to how she might spend the rest of her life.<ref name=Chibnall1991P43/> Being childless, she could not exercise a role as an imperial regent, which left her with the choice of either becoming a [[nun]] or remarrying.<ref name=Chibnall1991P43/> Some offers of marriage started to arrive from German princes, but she chose to return to Normandy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=43–44}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/18338 | title=Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), Empress, Consort of Heinrich V |mode=cs2| access-date=22 December 2013 | last1= Chibnall| first1= Marjorie | website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher=Oxford University Press | year = 2004–2013 }}</ref> She does not appear to have expected to return to Germany, as she gave up her estates within the Empire and departed with her personal collection of jewels, her own imperial regalia, two of Henry's crowns, and the valuable relic of the [[Hand of St James the Apostle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Chibnall|1991|pp=43–44}}; {{harvnb|Vincent|2006|p=148}}; {{cite web | url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/18338 | title=Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), Empress, Consort of Heinrich V |mode=cs2| access-date=22 December 2013 | last1= Chibnall| first1= Marjorie | website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | publisher=Oxford University Press | year = 2004–2013 }}</ref>