Editing Egyptian Armed Forces (section)

===Nineteenth century===
The modern Egyptian military was established by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] during his consolidation of power in Egypt, which significantly reduced Ottoman influence and contributed to [[Ottoman Egypt|Egypt]] becoming an autonomous vassal of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and effectively a de facto independent state.

In the early 19th century, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] undertook comprehensive military reforms aimed at establishing a centralized, European-style army capable of securing his territorial ambitions and consolidating his authority over Egypt and beyond. Though his initial campaigns, such as those in Arabia and Greece, were formally conducted on behalf of the [[Ottoman Empire]], Muhammad Ali progressively distanced himself from the [[Sublime Porte]] and expanded Egypt’s military power through independent campaigns.

Central to his military project was the reorganization of the Egyptian army along modern lines. Recruits were placed under strict discipline and surveillance within newly constructed barracks, subject to multiple daily roll calls and corporal punishment, including the use of the [[bastinado]] and [[whipping]].<ref>Khaled Fahmy, ''All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, his Army and the Making of Modern Egypt'' (Cambridge, 1997), 119–147.</ref> Military regulations and codes of conduct were developed to ensure obedience and uniform discipline, while new administrative practices introduced standardized record-keeping, personal identification numbers for soldiers, and hierarchical unit structures. These measures facilitated internal control, particularly in deterring desertion during forced marches or redeployment.<ref>Fahmy, 142–144.</ref>

Initially, Muhammad Ali relied on [[Bedouin]] groups to monitor troops at training camps, but tensions soon arose, prompting a shift toward a system of internment and self-contained oversight within military facilities.<ref>Fahmy, 123–124.</ref> His reforms extended to logistical administration, including the centralization of salaries, distinctions between officers and enlisted men, and the formalization of career military service.
[[File:Egypt under Muhammad Ali Dynasty map en.png|thumb|left|Map of Egypt under Muhammad Ali Dynasty]]
These internal reforms laid the foundation for a series of expansionist campaigns. In 1811, Muhammad Ali launched a campaign into the Arabian Peninsula to suppress the [[First Saudi State]], recapturing the [[Hejaz]] region and eventually defeating the [[House of Saud]] after a prolonged campaign led by his sons, [[Tusun Pasha]] and [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]].<ref>Henry Dodwell, ''The Founder of Modern Egypt'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 43–48.</ref> This was followed by the [[Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)|Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan]] (1820–1824), in which Egyptian forces subdued fragmented tribal entities, establishing Egyptian authority in the region and creating a new source of conscripts and slaves for the Egyptian army, including the formation of the ''Gihadiya'' foot regiments.<ref>Emanuel Beška, "Muhammad Ali’s Conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)," Asian and African Studies, Vol. 28, No. 1 (2019), pp. 30–56.</ref>

Muhammad Ali also participated in the suppression of the [[Greek War of Independence]] on behalf of the Ottomans, deploying a large expeditionary force under Ibrahim Pasha. Despite early advances, the Egyptian navy was decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Navarino]] (1827) by a coalition of European powers, costing Egypt its fleet and forcing withdrawal.<ref>Dodwell, 71.</ref>

From 1831 to 1840, Muhammad Ali engaged in two major wars against the Ottoman Empire, seeking to annex [[Syria]] and eventually challenge Ottoman sovereignty. His forces captured much of the Levant and advanced into Anatolia, winning major victories such as the [[Battle of Konya]] (1832) and [[Battle of Nezib]] (1839).<ref>Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, ''Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).</ref> However, sustained pressure from the European powers led to diplomatic intervention and the signing of the [[Convention of London (1840)]]. Under its terms, Muhammad Ali was forced to relinquish control of most of his conquests in exchange for recognition of hereditary rule over Egypt and [[Sudan]], thus laying the groundwork for Egypt's de facto autonomy within the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Morroe Berger, ''Military Elites and Social Change: Egypt Since Napoleon'' (Princeton: Center for International Studies, 1960), 11.</ref>

Under Muhammad Ali’s successors, the military remained central to the state but faced constraints. During the reign of [[Abbas I of Egypt|Abbas I]] and [[Sa'id of Egypt|Sa'id Pasha]], modernization slowed, although limited reforms were introduced, including early railway construction and the beginning of land and labor reforms.<ref name="Debs42">{{cite book |last=Debs |first=Richard A. |title=Islamic Law and Civil Code: The Law of Property in Egypt |year=2010 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-15044-6 |page=42}}</ref><ref name="Tignor222">{{cite book |last=Tignor |first=Robert L. |title=Egypt: A Short History |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15307-0 |page=222}}</ref>
[[File:Anglo-egyptian war.jpg|thumb|right|Egyptian soldiers during the [[Anglo-Egyptian War]].]]
The most ambitious military and infrastructural expansions occurred under [[Ismail Pasha]], who restructured the military academies, supported public works, and briefly pursued naval modernization, ordering ironclads and expanding the military's logistical capabilities.<ref name="Tignor223">{{cite book |last=Tignor |first=Robert L. |title=Egypt: A Short History |year=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15307-0 |page=223}}</ref> Egypt’s military also played a role in territorial expansion, particularly in Sudan and Darfur.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Royal Geographical Society |work=The Times of London |date=11 November 1874}}</ref> However, this coincided with fiscal mismanagement and rising foreign debt, leading to increasing European oversight, culminating in the sale of Egyptian shares in the [[Suez Canal Company]] to Britain in 1879.

Dissatisfaction with foreign influence, combined with longstanding grievances among Egyptian officers, culminated in the [[Urabi Revolt]] (1881–1882), led by [[Ahmed ‘Urabi]]. Originally sparked by resentment against favoritism toward officers of Turkish origin, the movement evolved into a broader nationalist uprising. Despite initial military resistance, Urabi’s forces were ultimately defeated by the [[British Army]] at the [[Battle of Tel-el-Kebir]], leading to the de facto British occupation of Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cleveland |first=William |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |year=2013 |publisher=Westview Press |page=92}}</ref> Though nominally autonomous, Egypt effectively became a British protectorate until the [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|unliateral declaration of independence]] in 1922.