Editing Eastern philosophy (section)

===Orthodox schools===
The principal Indian philosophical schools are classified as either orthodox or heterodox – [[Āstika and nāstika|āstika or nāstika]] – depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the [[Vedas]] are a valid source of knowledge; whether the school believes in the premises of [[Brahman]] and [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]; and whether the school believes in afterlife and [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]].<ref>John Bowker, ''Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', p. 259</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Wendy Doniger |title=On Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-936008-6 |page=46 |access-date=2 March 2018 |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703144429/https://books.google.com/books?id=c8vRAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are six major schools of orthodox Indian [[Hindu philosophy]]—[[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Mīmāṃsā]] and [[Vedanta]], and five major heterodox schools—[[Jainism|Jain]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Ajivika]], [[Ajñana]], and [[Cārvāka]]. However, there are other methods of classification; [[Vidyaranya]] for instance identifies sixteen schools of Hindu Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the [[Shaivism|Śaiva]] and [[Raseśvara]] traditions.<ref name="cowell">Cowell, E.B.; Gough, A.E. (1882). Sarva-Darsana Sangraha of Madhava Acharya: Review of Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy. New Delhi: Indian Books Centre/Sri Satguru Publications. {{ISBN|81-7030-875-5}}, p. xii.</ref><ref name="nicholson">Nicholson, pp. 158–162.</ref>

Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive [[Epistemology|epistemological]] literature called ''[[Pramana]]-sastras''.<ref name=kp>Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0779-0}}, pp. 25–26</ref><ref name=pbil>[[Purushottama Bilimoria|P Bilimoria]] (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy – Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, {{ISBN|978-94-010-5107-1}}, pp. 137–154</ref>

In [[History of Hinduism|Hindu history]], the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the [[Gupta period]] "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mīmāṃsā, it became obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta ([[Dvaita]] "dualism", Advaita Vedanta "non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as ''Navya Nyaya'' "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.

====Sāmkhya and Yoga====
[[Samkhya|Sāmkhya]] is a [[Mind–body dualism|dualist]] philosophical tradition based on the [[Samkhyakarika]] (c. 320–540 CE),<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0503-3}}, pp. 146–147</ref> while the [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga school]] was a closely related tradition emphasizing [[Dhyana in Hinduism|meditation]] and [[Kaivalya|liberation]] whose major text is the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga sutras]] (c. 400 CE).<ref>Maas, Philipp A. (2006). ''Samādhipāda: das erste Kapitel des Pātañjalayogaśāstra zum ersten Mal kritisch ediert''. Aachen: Shaker. {{ISBN|3-8322-4987-7}}.</ref> Elements of proto-Samkhya ideas can, however, be traced back to the period of the early [[Upanishads]].<ref>GJ Larson, RS Bhattacharya and K Potter (2014), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-691-60441-1}}, pp. 4–5</ref> One of the main differences between the two closely related schools was that Yoga allowed for the existence of a God, while most [[Samkhya|Sāmkhya]] thinkers criticized this idea.<ref>Roy Perrett (2007), Samkhya-Yoga Ethics, Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (Editors: Purusottama Bilimoria et al), Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3301-3}}, p. 151</ref>

Sāmkhya [[epistemology]] accepts three of six [[pramana]]s (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge; ''pratyakṣa'' ([[perception]]), ''anumāṇa'' ([[inference]]) and ''śabda'' (word/testimony of reliable sources).<ref name="ReferenceA">John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3067-5}}, p. 238</ref> The school developed a complex theoretical exposition of the evolution of [[Purusha|consciousness]] and [[Prakṛti|matter]]. Sāmkhya sources argue that the universe consists of two realities, [[Purusha|puruṣa]] ([[consciousness]]) and [[prakṛti]] ([[matter]]).

As shown by the ''[[Samkhyapravachana Sutra|Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra]]'' (c. 14th century CE), Sāmkhya continued to develop throughout the medieval period.

====Nyāya====
[[Nyaya|The Nyāya]] school of [[epistemology]] explores [[Pramāṇa|sources of knowledge]] (''Pramāṇa'') and is based on the ''[[Nyāya Sūtras]]'' (circa 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE).<ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, p. 129</ref> [[Nyaya|Nyāya]] holds that human suffering arises out of ignorance and liberation arises through correct knowledge. Therefore, they sought to investigate the sources of correct knowledge or epistemology.

[[Nyaya|Nyāya]] traditionally accepts four ''[[Pramana]]s'' as reliable means of gaining knowledge – ''Pratyakṣa'' (perception), ''Anumāṇa'' (inference), ''Upamāṇa'' (comparison and analogy) and ''Śabda'' (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).<ref name="ReferenceA"/> [[Nyaya|Nyāya]] also traditionally defended a form of philosophical [[Realism (philosophical)|realism]].<ref>Oliver Leaman (2006), Nyaya, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-86253-0}}, pp. 405–407</ref>

The ''[[Nyāya Sūtras]]'' was a very influential text in Indian philosophy, laying the foundations for classical Indian epistemological debates between the different philosophical schools. It includes, for example, the classic Hindu rejoinders against Buddhist not-self ([[anatta]]) arguments.<ref>P Bilimoria and JN Mohanty (2003), Relativism, Suffering and Beyond, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-566207-8}}, pp. i–ix with Introduction and Chapter 3</ref> The work also famously argues against a creator God ([[Ishvara]]),<ref>John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-12627-4}}, p. 150</ref> a debate which became central to Hinduism in the medieval period.

====Vaiśeṣika====
[[Vaisheshika|Vaiśeṣika]] is a naturalist school of [[atomism]], which accepts only two sources of knowledge, perception, and inference.<ref>DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, p. 172</ref> This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to ''paramāṇu'' ([[atom]]s), which are indestructible (''anitya''), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called "small" (''aṇu''). Whatever we experience is a composite of these atoms.<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/#VaiAto Analytical philosophy in early modern India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318135737/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/#VaiAto |date=18 March 2019 }} J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

Vaiśeṣika organized all objects of experience into what they called ''padārtha''s (literally: 'the meaning of a word') which included six categories; ''dravya'' (substance), ''guṇa'' (quality), ''karma'' (activity), ''sāmānya'' (generality), ''viśeṣa'' (particularity) and ''samavāya'' (inherence). Later ''Vaiśeṣika''s (''Śrīdhara'' and Udayana and ''Śivāditya'') added one more category ''[[abhava]]'' (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as ''artha'' (which can be perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as ''budhyapekṣam'' (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.<ref>[[Vaisheshika#CITEREFRadhakrishnan2006|Radhakrishnan 2006]], pp. 183–186</ref>

====Mīmāṃsā====
[[Mīmāṃsā]] is a school of ritual [[orthopraxy]] and is known for its [[Hermeneutics|hermeneutical]] study and interpretation of the [[Vedas]].<ref name="Oliver Leaman 2006">Oliver Leaman (2006), Shruti, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-86253-0}}, p. 503</ref> For this tradition, the study of ''[[dharma]]'' as ritual and social duty was paramount. They also held that the Vedas were "eternal, authorless, [and] infallible" and that Vedic injunctions and [[mantra]]s in rituals are prescriptive actions of primary importance.<ref name="Oliver Leaman 2006"/> Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of [[philology]] and the [[philosophy of language]] which influenced other Indian schools.<ref>Peter M. Scharf, ''The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy'' (1996), Chapter 3</ref> They primarily held that the purpose of language was to correctly ''prescribe'' proper actions, rituals, and correct [[dharma]] (duty or virtue).<ref>Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'' (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-86253-0}}, pp. 443–445</ref> Mīmāṃsā is also mainly atheistic, holding that the evidence for the existence of God is insufficient and that the Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the names, mantras and their power.<ref>[[Harold Coward|Coward, Harold]] (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C ''The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206144339/https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C |date=6 December 2022 }}. p. 114. {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7336-8}}.</ref>

A key text of the Mīmāṃsā school is the [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mīmāṃsā Sūtra]] of [[Jaimini]] and major Mīmāṃsā scholars include [[Prabhākara]] (c. 7th century) and [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa]] ([[Floruit|fl.]] roughly 700). The Mīmāṃsā school strongly influenced [[Vedanta|Vedānta]], which was also known as ''Uttara-Mīmāṃsā''; however, while Mīmāṃsā emphasized ''karmakāṇḍa'', or the study of ritual actions, using the four early [[Vedas]], the Vedānta schools emphasized ''jñanakāṇḍa'', the study of knowledge, using the later parts of Vedas like the [[Upaniṣads]].<ref name="Oliver Leaman 2006"/>

====Vedānta====
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|x250px|[[Adi Shankara]] (8th century CE) the main exponent of [[Advaita]] Vedānta]]
[[Vedānta]] (meaning "end of the [[Vedas]]") or ''Uttara-Mīmāṃsā'', are a group of traditions which focus on the philosophical issues found in the [[Prasthanatrayi]] (the three sources), which are the ''[[Principal Upanishads]]'', the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]].''<ref>[[Vedanta#CITEREFRanganathan|Ranganathan]]; [[Vedanta#CITEREFHiriyanna1948|Hiriyanna 1948]], pp. 19, 21–25, 150–152; [[Vedanta#CITEREFGrimes1990|Grimes 1990]], pp. 6–7</ref> [[Vedānta]] sees the Vedas, particularly the [[Upanishads]], as a reliable source of knowledge.

The central concern for these schools is the nature of and the relationship between ''[[Brahman]]'' (ultimate reality, universal consciousness), ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]'' (individual soul) and ''[[Prakriti]]'' (empirical world).

The sub-traditions of [[Vedānta]] include [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] (non-dualism), [[Vishishtadvaita]] (qualified non-dualism), [[Dvaita]] (dualism), and [[Bhedabheda]] (difference and non-difference).<ref>[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03%E2%80%93DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Due to the popularity of the [[bhakti movement]], [[Vedānta]] came to be the dominant current of [[Hinduism]] in the post-medieval period.

====Other====
While the classical enumeration of Indian philosophies lists six orthodox schools, there are other schools that are sometimes seen as orthodox. These include:<ref name="cowell"/>
* [[Pasupata|Paśupata]], an [[Asceticism|ascetic]] school of Shaivism founded by [[Lakulisha]] (≈2nd century CE).
* [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Śaiva Siddhānta]], a school of dualistic [[Shaivism]] which was strongly influenced by Samkhya.
* [[Pratyabhijna|Pratyabhijña]] (recognition) school of [[Utpaladeva]] (10th century) and [[Abhinavagupta]] (975–1025 CE), a form of non-dual Shaiva [[tantra]].
* [[Raseśvara]], the mercurial school
* [[Pāṇini]] Darśana, the grammarian school (which clarifies the theory of [[Sphoṭa]])