Editing Earl (section)

== England ==

=== Anglo-Saxon period ===
{{Further|List of earldoms#Earldoms in England before 1066}}
==== Ealdorman ====
{{Main|Ealdorman}}
The office of earl evolved from the ealdorman, an office within [[Anglo-Saxon government]]. The [[History of the English monarchy|English king]] appointed the ealdorman to be the chief officer in a [[shire]]. He commanded the local [[fyrd]] and presided over the [[shire court]] alongside the [[bishop]]. As compensation, he received the [[wikt:third penny|third penny]]: one-third of the shire court's profits and the [[Ancient borough|borough]]s' revenues.{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|pp=5–6}} Initially, the ealdorman governed a single shire. Starting with [[Edward the Elder]] ({{reign|899|924}}), it became customary for one ealdorman to administer three or four shires together as an ealdormanry.{{Sfn|Lyon|1980|pp=62–63}}

==== Cnut the Great ====
[[File:Earldoms of Anglo-Saxon England.svg|thumb|right|Earldoms of Anglo-Saxon England]]

During [[Cnut]]'s reign (1016–1035), ''ealdorman'' changed to ''earl'' (related to Old English {{Lang|ang|eorl}} and Scandinavian {{lang|non|[[jarl]]}}).{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=6}}{{Sfn|Lyon|1980|p=63}}{{NoteTag|In Latin, it was rendered as {{lang|la|[[dux]]}}{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=5}} or {{lang|la|[[comes]]}}.{{Sfn|Green|2017|p=61}}}} Cnut's realm, the [[North Sea Empire]], extended beyond England, forcing him to delegate power to earls.{{Sfn|Loyn|1984|p=133}} Earls were governors or [[viceroy]]s, ruling in the king's name, keeping the peace, dispensing justice, and raising armies. Like the earlier ealdormen, they received the third penny from their jurisdictions. Earls ranked above [[thegn]]s in precedence and were the chief counselors in the [[witan]] (king's council).{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=28}}

The office of earl was not hereditary. While sons of earls could expect to inherit their father's office, this was not automatic. Only the king could make someone an earl.{{Sfn|Williams|2008|p=24}}

Initially, Cnut kept Wessex for himself and divided the rest of England into three earldoms. He gave the [[earldom of East Anglia]] to [[Thorkell the Tall]] and the [[earldom of Northumbria]] to [[Eiríkr Hákonarson|Eric]].{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=7}} [[Eadric Streona]] retained the [[earldom of Mercia]] (having been unified with western Mercia in the tenure of earldorman Ælfhere), which he had held since 1007.<ref>{{Cite ODNB|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8511|title=Eadric [Edric] Streona}}</ref> Cnut gave Godwin the [[earldom of Wessex]] in 1018.{{NoteTag|Godwin became an earl in 1018 with control of eastern Wessex. After 1020, Godwin gained all of Wessex.<ref name="Godwin">{{Cite ODNB|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-10887|title=Godwine [Godwin], earl of Wessex (d. 1053), magnate|year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/10887 |isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 }}</ref>}} Eventually Godwin was also granted the [[earldom of Kent]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2012/the-history-of-script-sixty-important-manuscript-leaves-from-the-schyen-collection/lot.37.html |title=The Godwine charter, granting to Leofwine the Red the swine-pasture of Swithraedingden (probably Southernden, Kent) for the rent of forty pence and two pounds and an allowance of corn, in Anglo-Saxon, single-sheet document on vellum [Kent (probably Christ Church, Canterbury), 1013-20] |author=Sotheby's |website=Sotheby's |access-date=14 May 2024 |quote=Godwine rose to power under King Cnut the Great (d.1035) and his immediate successors, being made earl of Wessex c.1018, and according to the twelfth-century historian Eadmer, the earl of Kent. He was step-father to King Edward the Confessor (c.1003-1066) and father to Harold Godwinesson, the last Anglo-Saxon king, killed in 1066 at Hastings by the Norman invaders. Domesday Book records that immediately before the Norman Conquest Broughton Malherbe and its estates were held by one "Ælfwine ... from Earl Godwine" (DB., Kent, 5:79).}}</ref> Thorkell vanished from the records after 1023, and Godwin became the leading earl.<ref name="Godwin"/>

Earldoms were not permanent territorial divisions; kings could transfer shires from one earldom to another. The fact that there was no local government administration beyond the shire also limited the autonomy of the earls. They could not raise taxation, mint coins, issue [[Anglo-Saxon charters|charters]], or hold their own courts (the shire courts that earls presided over were held in the king's name).{{Sfn|Williams|2008|pp=23–24}}

[[F. W. Maitland]] wrote, "with the estates of the earls, we find it impossible to distinguish between private property and official property". He noted the existence of "[[Manorialism|manors]] of the shire" and "comital [[vill]]s" that belonged to the office rather than the officeholder.{{Sfn|Maitland|1897|p=168}} [[Stephen Baxter (historian)|Stephen Baxter]] argued that given the evidence, it must be "assumed that the 'comital manors' in each shire could be transferred by the king from one earl to another with relative ease". However, not all scholars agree with the existence of such "comital" property.<ref>{{harvnb|Baxter|2007|p=13}} quoted in {{harvnb|Williams|2008|p=22}}</ref>

==== Edward the Confessor ====
During the reign of [[Edward the Confessor]] (1042–1066), the earls were still royal officers governing their earldoms in the king's name. However, they were developing more autonomy and becoming a threat to royal power.{{Sfn|Green|2017|p=168}}{{Sfn|Lyon|1980|p=63}} Three great aristocratic families had emerged: the [[House of Godwin|Godwins]] of Wessex, [[Leofric of Mercia]], and [[Siward of Northumbria]].{{Sfn|Loyn|1984|p=133}} 

In theory, earls could be removed by the king. Edward deliberately broke the hereditary succession to Northumbria when Earl Siward died in 1055. He ignored the claims of Siward's son, [[Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria|Waltheof]], and appointed [[Tostig Godwinson]] as earl.{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=7}} The earldom of East Anglia appears to have been used as a training ground for new earls. Nevertheless, the earldoms of Wessex and Mercia were becoming hereditary.{{Sfn|Green|2017|p=168}} For four generations, Mercia was passed from father to son: [[Leofwine, Ealdorman of the Hwicce|Leofwine]], [[Leofric, Earl of Mercia|Leofric]], [[Ælfgar, Earl of Mercia|Ælfgar]], and [[Edwin, Earl of Mercia|Edwin]].{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=7}} 

To reward Godwin for his support, Edward made his eldest son, [[Sweyn Godwinson|Sweyn]], an earl in 1043.{{NoteTag|Sweyn's earldom was probably located in the south-west [[Midlands]] in the shires of Somerset, Hereford, Gloucester, Oxford, and Berkshire.{{Sfn|Barlow|1997|p=91}}}} [[Harold Godwinson|Harold]], Godwin's second oldest son, was made the earl of East Anglia. In 1045, an earldom was created for Godwin's nephew, [[Beorn Estrithson]]. After Sweyn left England in disgrace in 1047, some of his estates were taken over by Harold and Beorn. [[Ralf of Mantes]], Edward's Norman nephew, was made [[earl of Hereford]], a territory formerly part of Sweyn's earldom.{{Sfn|Barlow|1997|pp=74 & 89–91, 93–94}} 

In 1053, Harold succeeded his father, and Ælfgar, son of Earl Leofric, became earl of East Anglia. A major reshuffle occurred after both Leofric and Ralf died in 1057. Ælfgar succeeded his father in Mercia, and [[Gyrth Godwinson]] took East Anglia. An earldom was created for [[Leofwine Godwinson]] out of the south-eastern shires belonging to Harold. In exchange, Harold received Ralf's earldom.{{Sfn|Barlow|1997|pp=127 & 197}} 

In 1065, a rebellion deposed Tostig and recognised [[Morcar]], the brother of Earl Edwin of Mercia, as Northumbria's new earl. The king accepted this, and Tostig was expelled from England.{{Sfn|Barlow|1997|p=237}}

In 1066, according to the [[Domesday Book]], the Godwin family estates were valued at £7,000, Earl Leofric of Mercia at £2,400, and Earl Siward of Northumbria at £350. In comparison, the king's lands were valued at £5,000. This concentration of land and wealth in the hands of the earls, and one family in particular, weakened the Crown's authority. The situation was reversed when Harold Godwinson became king, and he was able to restore the Crown's authority.{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|pp=20 & 23}}

=== Norman Conquest ===
{{Further|List of earls in the reign of William the Conqueror}}
[[File:Odo bayeux tapestry detail.jpg|thumb|Odo of Bayeux, fighting in the [[Battle of Hastings]] as shown in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]. Odo was later made Earl of Kent.|300x300px]]

The [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066 introduced a new [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] aristocracy that gradually replaced the old Anglo-Saxon elite.{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=33}} In [[Duchy of Normandy|Normandy]], a [[duchy]] in the [[France in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of France]], the equivalent of an earl was a [[count]].{{Sfn|Green|2017|p=61}}  The definition and powers of French counts varied widely. Some counts were nearly independent rulers who gave only nominal loyalty to the [[King of France]]. In Normandy, counts were junior members of the [[House of Normandy|Norman dynasty]] with responsibility for guarding border regions.{{Sfn|Crouch|1992|pp=54–56}} In 1066, there were three Norman counts: [[Richard, Count of Évreux|Richard of Évreux]], [[Robert, Count of Eu|Robert of Eu]], and [[Robert of Mortain]].{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=18}} 

[[William the Conqueror]] ({{reign|1066|1087}}) reduced the size of earldoms; those created after 1071 had responsibility for one shire.{{Sfn|Crouch|1992|p=57}} Like Norman counts, earls became military governors assigned to vulnerable border or coastal areas. To protect the [[Welsh Marches]], the king made [[Roger de Montgomery]] the [[earl of Shrewsbury]] and [[Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester|Hugh d'Avranches]] the [[earl of Chester]] {{Crossreference|(see [[Marcher Lord]])}}. Likewise, the king's half-brother [[Odo of Bayeux]] was made [[earl of Kent]] to guard the [[English Channel]].{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|pp=82–83}} 

After the [[Revolt of the Earls]] in 1075, only four earldoms remained, all held by Anglo-Normans: Kent, Shrewsbury, Chester, and Northumbria. This number was reduced to three after 1082 when Odo of Bayeux was arrested and deprived of Kent.{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|pp=32–33}} At the death of [[William Rufus]] in 1100, there were five earldoms: Chester, Shrewsbury, [[Earl of Surrey|Surrey]] (or Warrenne), [[Earl of Warwick|Warwick]], and [[Earl of Huntingdon|Huntingdon]]–[[Earl of Northampton|Northampton]]. In 1122, [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] made his [[illegitimate]] son [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Robert]] the [[earl of Gloucester]].{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|pp=51 & 60}}

After the Conquest, new earldoms tended to be named for the city and castle in which they were based. Some titles became attached to the family name rather than location. For example, the holder of the [[earldom of Surrey]] was more commonly called "Earl Warenne". The same was true of the [[earldom of Buckingham]], whose holder was called "Earl Gifford". These earls may have preferred to be known by family names that were older and more prestigious than their newer territorial designations.{{Sfn|Crouch|1992|pp=57–58}}

=== Stephen and Matilda ===
The number of earls rose from seven in 1135 to twenty in 1141 as King [[Stephen of England|Stephen]] ({{reign|1135|1154}}) [[List of earls in the reign of Stephen of England|created twelve new earls]] to reward supporters during [[the Anarchy]], the civil war fought with his cousin [[Empress Matilda]] for the English throne.{{Sfn|Green|2017|p=62}}{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=83}} In 1138, Stephen created eight new earldoms:{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|pp=66–67}}

# [[Waleran de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Worcester|Waleran de Beaumont]], who was already [[County of Meulan|Count of Meulan]] in Normandy and the twin brother of the [[Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester|2nd Earl of Leicester]], was made [[earl of Worcester]]. 
# Waleran's younger brother [[Hugh de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Bedford|Hugh de Beaumont]] was made [[earl of Bedford]].
# [[Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke|Gilbert de Clare]] was made [[earl of Pembroke]].
# [[Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Hertford|Gilbert de Clare]], nephew of the Earl of Pembroke, was made [[earl of Hertford]].
# [[William le Gros, Earl of York|William de Aumale]] was made [[earl of York]] in reward for service during the [[Battle of the Standard]].
# [[Robert de Ferrers, 1st Earl of Derby|Robert de Ferrers]] was made [[earl of Derby]] in reward for service during the Battle of the Standard. 
# [[William d'Aubigny, 1st Earl of Arundel|William d'Aubigny]] was made [[earl of Lincoln]].
# [[William de Roumare, Earl of Lincoln|William de Roumare]] was made [[earl of Cambridge]].

In 1140, Roumare was given the earldom of Lincoln in exchange for Cambridge, and William d'Aubigny received the [[Earl of Arundel|earldom of Sussex (commonly known as Arundel)]]. The same year, [[Geoffrey de Mandeville, Earl of Essex|Geoffrey de Mandeville]] was made [[earl of Essex]], and his is the oldest surviving charter of creation. Around the same time, [[Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk|Hugh Bigod]] was made [[earl of Norfolk]].{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|pp=66–67}}

In February 1141, Stephen was captured at the [[Battle of Lincoln (1141)|Battle of Lincoln]], and Empress Matilda elected "Lady of the English" in April. At this time, she created three earldoms for her own supporters. Her illegitimate brother [[Reginald de Dunstanville, 1st Earl of Cornwall|Reginald de Dunstanville]] was made [[earl of Cornwall]]. [[Baldwin de Redvers, 1st Earl of Devon|Baldwin de Redvers]] was made [[earl of Devon]], and [[William de Mohun, 1st Earl of Somerset|William de Mohun]], [[Feudal barony of Dunster|lord of Dunster]], was made [[earl of Somerset]]. [[Aubrey de Vere, 1st Earl of Oxford|Aubrey de Vere]] was made [[earl of Oxford]] in 1142. Sometime around 1143, Matilda's constable [[Patrick, 1st Earl of Salisbury|Patrick of Salisbury]] was made [[earl of Salisbury]].{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|pp=67 & 69}}

During the Anarchy, earls took advantage of the power vacuum to assume Crown rights. Robert of Gloucester, Patrick of Salisbury, [[Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester|Robert of Leicester]], and [[Henry of Scotland|Henry of Northumbria]] all minted their own coinage. Earls and [[English feudal barony|barons]] had also built [[adulterine castle]]s (castles built without royal permission).{{Sfn|Starkey|2010|pp=166 & 175}}

=== Plantagenets ===
[[File:Hedingham Castle - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Hedingham Castle]], seat of the Earls of Oxford, is in Essex where most of the earl's land was concentrated]]
[[File:Earls Procession to Parliament.jpg|thumb|The royal procession to the [[Parliament of England]] at [[Westminster]] on 4 February 1512. Left to right: The [[Marquess of Dorset]] (second from left), [[Earl of Northumberland]], [[Earl of Surrey]], [[Earl of Shrewsbury]], [[Earl of Essex]], [[Earl of Kent]], [[Earl of Derby]], [[Earl of Wiltshire]]. From Parliament Procession Roll of 1512.]]

It fell to Stephen's successor [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] ({{reign | 1154 | 1189}}) to again curtail the power of earls. He confiscated or demolished illegal castles.{{Sfn|Starkey|2010|pp=166 & 175}} He [[List of earls in the reign of Henry II of England|reduced the number of earldoms]] by allowing them to die with their holders and did not create new ones. During his reign, "the title became a mark of rank, rather than a substantive office: the real power lay with the king's sheriffs and justices."{{Sfn|Green|2017|p=62}}

The real power possessed by any individual earl in this period depended on the amount of land and wealth he possessed that could be translated into patronage and influence. The more land and resources concentrated in a region, the more influence an earl had. The most powerful were the earls of Chester, who [[List of earls in the reign of Henry III of England|by the middle of the 13th century]] were described as [[Earls Palatine|earls palatine]]. Their power derived from owning most of the land in Cheshire. As a result, the shire court and the earl's [[Manorial court|honour court]] were identical, and the sheriff answered to the earl. The [[earl of Oxford]] possessed less than an acre of land in Oxfordshire (most of his land was in Essex), and therefore possessed no power in the county.{{Sfn|Crouch|1992|pp=62–63}}

An earldom along with its land was inherited generally according to [[primogeniture]]. If the only heirs were female, then the land would be partitioned equally between co-heirs with the eldest co-heir receiving the title. In 1204, [[Robert de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Leicester]], died without children. His heirs were his sisters, [[Amice, Countess of Rochefort|Amice]] and Margaret. Amice's son, [[Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]], succeeded as earl of Leicester, and Margaret's husband, [[Saer de Quincy, 1st Earl of Winchester|Saer de Quincy]], was created the [[earl of Winchester]] in 1207. This was the first new hereditary earldom created since the reign of Stephen.{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=111}}

An earldom could be dramatically impacted upon by multiple partitions. In 1232, [[Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester]] died childless. His lands were divided between his four sisters with the title going to the eldest's son, [[John of Scotland, Earl of Huntingdon]]. John died in 1237, and once again the estate had to be divided between five co-heirs (the two daughters of his eldest sister and his three surviving sisters). Before the land could be divided, King [[Alexander II of Scotland]] claimed the earldom of Huntingdon. While the king's council dismissed this claim, the Scottish king was granted the lands attached to Huntingdon but not the title. This reduced the land available to John's co-heirs and created the possibility of an earl who was virtually landless. Earl Ranulf had been the greatest landholder in England, but after two partitions in five years, the land granted to each co-heir was small. [[William de Forz, 4th Earl of Albemarle|William de Forz]], husband of the senior co-heir, argued that as a county palatine the earldom of Chester should not be partitioned, but this argument was rejected by the king's court. Ultimately, the king himself gained possession of all the lands attached to the Chester earldom through a series of land exchanges with the co-heirs.{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|pp=162–166}}

In 1227, [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] ({{reign|1216|1272}}) granted his [[justiciar]] and [[List of English chief ministers|chief minister]], [[Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent|Hubert de Burgh]], the earldom of Kent. The terms of inheritance were unprecedented: the earldom was to pass to Hubert's son by his third wife [[Margaret of Scotland, Countess of Kent|Margaret of Scotland]], thereby passing over his eldest son by his first wife. It may have been thought that Margaret's royal blood made her children more worthy of inheritance.{{Sfn|Powell|Wallis|1968|p=147}}

By the 13th century earls had a social rank just below the king and princes, but were not necessarily more powerful or wealthier than other noblemen. The only way to become an earl was to inherit the title or to marry into one—and the king reserved a right to prevent the transfer of the title. By the 14th century, creating an earl included a special public ceremony where the king personally tied a sword belt around the waist of the new earl, emphasizing the fact that the earl's rights came from him.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Earls still held influence and, as "companions of the king", generally acted in support of the king's power. They showed their own power prominently in 1327 when they deposed King [[Edward II of England|Edward II]]. They would later do the same with other kings of whom they disapproved.  In 1337 [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] declared that he intended to [[List of earls in the reign of Edward III of England|create six new earldoms]].{{Sfn|Ayton|2013}}