Editing Dyslexia (section)

==Signs and symptoms==
{{See also|Characteristics of dyslexia}}

In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include [[Speech delay|delayed onset of speech]] and a lack of [[phonological awareness]].<ref name=Handler2011/> A common myth closely associates dyslexia with [[mirror writing]] and reading letters or words backwards.<ref name="LilienfeldLynn2011">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|title=50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior|last2=Lynn|first2=Steven Jay|last3=Ruscio|first3=John|last4=Beyerstein|first4=Barry L.|date=15 September 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6074-5|pages=88–89|last1=Lilienfeld|first1=Scott O.|author-link1=Scott Lilienfeld|author-link4=Barry Beyerstein|access-date=19 May 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109130327/https://books.google.com/books?id=8DlS0gfO_QUC&pg=PT88|archive-date=9 January 2017}}</ref> These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.<ref name=Handler2011/>

School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit [[Signs and symptoms|signs]] of difficulty in identifying or generating [[Rhyme|rhyming words]], or counting the number of [[syllable]]s in words—both of which depend on phonological awareness.<ref name="DAss">{{cite web |title=Dyslexia and Related Disorders |date=January 2003 |website=Alabama Dyslexia Association |publisher=[[International Dyslexia Association]] |access-date=29 April 2015 |url=http://idaalabama.org/Facts/Dyslexia_and_Related.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124053/http://idaalabama.org/Facts/Dyslexia_and_Related.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016  }}</ref> They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds (such as sounding out the three sounds of ''k'', ''a'', and ''t'' in ''cat'') or may struggle to blend sounds, indicating reduced [[phonemic awareness]].<ref name="PeerReid2014">{{cite book |last1=Peer |first1=Lindsay |last2=Reid |first2=Gavin |title=Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-60899-5 |page=219 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109204808/https://books.google.com/books?id=-aoABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 |archive-date=9 January 2017  }}</ref>

Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.<ref name="Shaywitz2013a">{{cite book|author1=Shaywitz, Sally E.|author2=Shaywitz, Bennett A.|chapter=Chapter 34 Making a Hidden Disability Visible: What Has Been Learned from Neurobiological Studies of Dyslexia|editor1=Swanson, H. Lee|editor2=Harris, Karen R.|editor3=Graham, Steve|title=Handbook of Learning Disabilities|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|edition=2|year=2013|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0856-3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109143943/https://books.google.com/books?id=oakQfUuutVwC&pg=PA647|archive-date=9 January 2017}}</ref>{{rp|647}} People with dyslexia are commonly poor [[Spelling|spellers]], a feature sometimes called ''dysorthographia'' or ''[[dysgraphia]]'', which depends on the skill of [[Orthography|orthographic coding]].<ref name="Handler2011" />

Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in [[spelling]] tests or when reading nonsense words—a measure of phonological awareness.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jarrad|first1=Lum|title=Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies|journal=Research in Developmental Disabilities|date=October 2013|pages=3460–76|pmid=23920029|pmc=3784964|doi=10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017|volume=34|issue=10}}</ref>

===Associated conditions===
Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum |journal=Cortex |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=117–27 |date=September 2009|pmid=19818437 |doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.016|last1=Nicolson |first1=R. I. |last2=Fawcett |first2=A. J.|s2cid=32228208 }}</ref> These associated disabilities include:

; [[Dysgraphia]]: A disorder involving difficulties with [[writing]] or [[typing]], sometimes due to problems with [[eye–hand coordination]]; it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as [[Knot tying|tying knots]] or carrying out repetitive tasks.<ref name=ReynoldsFletcherJanzen2007>{{cite book |last1=Reynolds |first1=Cecil R. |last2=Fletcher-Janzen |first2=Elaine |title=Encyclopedia of Special Education |date=2 January 2007 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-67798-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wdNpBchvdvQC&pg=PA771 771] }}</ref> In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing [[automaticity]], organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.<ref name=ReynoldsFletcherJanzen2007/>
; [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD): A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml|title=Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder|date=March 2016|publisher=NIH: National Institute of Mental Health|access-date=26 July 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723192735/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml|archive-date=23 July 2016}}</ref> Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.<ref name="Koo2013" /><ref name="ComerGould2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|title=Psychology Around Us|date=2011|publisher=RR Donnelley|isbn=978-0-471-38519-6|page=1|author1=Comer, Ronald|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604000711/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySIc1BcPJu8C&pg=RA1-PA233|archive-date=4 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last2=Gagliano|first2=A|last3=Curatolo|first3=P|year=2010|title=Comorbidity of ADHD and Dyslexia|url=http://pdfserve.informaworld.com/260009__925867416.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810101321/http://pdfserve.informaworld.com/260009__925867416.pdf |archive-date=2011-08-10 |url-status=live|journal=Developmental Neuropsychology|volume=35|issue=5|pages=475–493|doi=10.1080/87565641.2010.494748|pmid=20721770|last1=Germanò|first1=E|s2cid=42046958}}</ref> Approximately 15%<ref name="Handler2011" /> or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD;<ref name="FatemiSartorius2008">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|title=The Medical Basis of Psychiatry|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59745-252-6|edition=3rd |page=308|author1=Fatemi, S. Hossein|author2=Sartorius, Norman|author3=Clayton, Paula J.|author3-link=Paula Clayton|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109101234/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJOy1vy2RKQC&pg=PA308|archive-date=9 January 2017}}</ref> and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.<ref name="Handler2011" />
; [[Auditory processing disorder]]: A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information.<ref name="Capellini2007a">{{cite book|author=Capellini, Simone Aparecida|title=Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|year=2007|publisher=Nova Publishers|isbn=978-1-60021-537-7|page=94|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109113545/https://books.google.com/books?id=uiEaMQVwyzYC&pg=PA94|archive-date=9 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The diagnosis and management of auditory processing disorder|journal=  Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools|volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=303–8 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21757566 |doi=10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0032)|last1=Moore |first1=D. R.}}</ref> This can lead to problems with [[auditory memory]] and auditory [[sequencing]]. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own [[logographic cues]] to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.<ref name=Pammer2014>{{cite journal|last1=Pammer|first1=Kristen|title=Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers.|journal=Scientifica|date=January 2014|pmid=24527259|pmc=3913493|doi=10.1155/2014/802741|volume=2014|pages=802741|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Law|first1=J|title=relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia|journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience|date=2014|pmid=25071512|pmc=4078926|doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482|volume=8|pages=482|doi-access=free}}</ref>
; [[Developmental coordination disorder]]: A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-[[motor control]] and [[kinesthetic]] coordination; difficulty in the use of speech sounds; and problems with [[short-term memory]] and organization.<ref name=Pickering2012>{{cite book|author=Susan J. Pickering|chapter=Chapter 2. Working Memory in Dyslexia|editor1=Alloway, Tracy Packiam|editor2=Gathercole, Susan E.|title=Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|year=2012|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-42134-2|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170109194637/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29|archive-date=9 January 2017}}</ref>