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==Organization== [[File:Willem Usselinx (1567-na 1647). Koopman en stichter van de West Indische Compagnie Rijksmuseum SK-A-1675.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Willem Usselincx]], co-founder of the Dutch West India Company]] [[File:Delaware Bay Vinckeboons 14.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Zwaanendael Colony]] along the Delaware]][[File:Piet Hein.jpg|thumb|[[Piet Hein (Netherlands)|Piet Heyn]], GWC admiral who captured the Spanish silver fleet in 1628.]] The ''Dutch West India Company'' was organized similarly to the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Like the VOC, the GWC had five offices, called chambers (''kamers''), in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hoorn, Middelburg and Groningen, of which the chambers in Amsterdam and Middelburg contributed most to the company. The board consisted of 19 members, known as the Heeren XIX (the Nineteen Gentlemen,<ref name="WDL2">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4068/ |title = Freedoms, as Given by the Council of the Nineteen of the Chartered West India Company to All those who Want to Establish a Colony in New Netherland |website = [[World Digital Library]] |year = 1630 |access-date = 2013-07-28 |archive-date = 2021-07-02 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210702224806/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/4068/ |url-status = live }}</ref> as opposed to the Heeren XVII who controlled the East India company.) The institutional structure of the GWC followed the federal structure, which entailed extensive discussion for any decision, with regional representation: 8 from [[Amsterdam]]; 4 from [[Zeeland]], 2 each from the [[Noorderkwartier|Northern Quarter]] ([[Hoorn]] and [[Enkhuizen]]), the Maas ([[Rotterdam]], [[Delft]], and [[Dordrecht]]), the region of [[Groningen]], and one representative from the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]]. Each region had its own chamber and board of directors.<ref>Michiel van Groesen, ''Amsterdam's Atlantic: Print Culture and the Making of Dutch Brazil''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2017, pp. 37–38.</ref> The validity of the charter was set at 24 years. Only in 1623 was funding arranged, after several bidders were put under pressure. The [[States General of the Netherlands]] and the VOC pledged one million [[guilders]] in the form of capital and subsidy. Although Iberian writers said that [[crypto-Jews]] or [[Marranos]] played an important role in the formation of both the VOC and the GWC, research has shown that initially they played a minor role, but expanded during the period of the Dutch in Brazil. Emigrant [[Calvinists]] from the Spanish Netherlands did make significant investments in the GWC.<ref>[[Charles R. Boxer]], ''The Dutch in Brazil, 1724-1654''. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1957, pp. 10-11.</ref> Investors did not rush to put their money in the company in 1621, but the States-General urged municipalities and other institutions to invest. Explanations for the slow investment by individuals were that shareholders had "no control over the directors' policy and the handling of ordinary investors' money," that it was a "racket" to provide "cushy posts for the directors and their relatives, at the expense of ordinary shareholders".<ref>Boxer, ''The Dutch in Brazil'', p. 12.</ref> The VOC directors invested money in the GWC, without consulting their shareholders, causing dissent among a number of shareholders.<ref>Boxer, ''The Dutch in Brazil'', pp. 12–13.</ref> In order to attract foreign shareholders, the GWC offered equal standing to foreign investors with Dutch, resulting in shareholders from France, Switzerland, and Venice. A translation of the original 1621 charter appeared in English, ''Orders and Articles granted by the High and Mightie Lords the States General of the United Provinces concerning the erecting of a West-Indies Companie, Anno Dom. MDCXII''.<ref>Boxer, ''The Dutch in Brazil'', p. 13.</ref> by 1623, the capital for the GWC at 2.8 million florins was not as great the VOC's original capitalization of 6.5 million, but it was still a substantial sum. The GWC had 15 ships to carry trade and plied the west African coast and Brazil.<ref>Boxer, ''The Dutch in Brazil'', pp. 13–14.</ref> Unlike the VOC, the GWC had no right to deploy military troops. When the Twelve Years' Truce in 1621 was over, the Republic had a free hand to re-wage war with Spain. A ''[[Groot Desseyn]]'' ("grand design") was devised to seize the Portuguese colonies in Africa and the Americas, so as to dominate the sugar and slave trade. When this plan failed, [[privateering]] became one of the major goals within the GWC. The arming of merchant ships with guns and soldiers to defend themselves against Spanish ships was of great importance. On almost all ships in 1623, 40 to 50 soldiers were stationed, possibly to assist in the [[Maritime hijacking|hijacking]] of enemy ships.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} Klein, P.W. (1965) De Trippen in de 17e eeuw, p. 150.</ref> It is unclear whether the first expedition was the expedition by [[Jacques l'Hermite]] to the coast of Chile, Peru and Bolivia, set up by Stadtholder Maurice with the support of the States General and the VOC. The company was initially a dismal failure, in terms of its expensive early projects, and its directors shifted emphasis from conquest of territory to pursue plunder of shipping. The most spectacular success for the GWC was Piet Heyn's seizure of the [[Spanish silver fleet]], which carried silver from Spanish colonies to Spain. He had also seized a consignment of sugar from Brazil and a galleon from Honduras with cacao, indigo, and other valuable goods. Privateering was its most profitable activity in the late 1620s.<ref>[[Jonathan I. Israel]], ''The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World, 1606-1661''. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1982, p. 197.</ref> Despite Heyn's success at plunder, the company's directors realized that it was not a basis to build long-term profit, leading them to renew their attempts to seize Iberian territory in the Americas. They decided their target was Brazil.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World'', pp. 198–99.</ref> ([[Recapture of Bahia]]) ===Involvement in Brazil=== There were conflicts between directors from different areas of The Netherlands, with Amsterdam less supportive of the company. Non-maritime cities, including [[Haarlem]], [[Leiden]], and [[Gouda, South Holland|Gouda]], along with Enkhuizen and Hoorn were enthusiastic about seizing territory. They sent a fleet to Brazil, capturing [[Olinda]] and [[Pernambuco]] in 1630 in their initial foray to create a Dutch Brazil, but could not hold them due to a strong Portuguese resistance.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World'', pp. 201–02.</ref> Company ships continued privateering in the Caribbean, as well seizing vital land resources, particularly salt pans.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World'', p. 203.</ref> The company's general lack of success saw their shares plummet and the Dutch and The Spanish renewed truce talks in 1633.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World'', p. 204.</ref> In 1629, the GWC gave permission to a number of investors in [[New Netherland]]s to found [[patroonships]], enabled by the [[Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions]] which was ratified by the [[States General of the Netherlands|Dutch States General]] on 7 June 1629. The patroonships were created to help populate the colony, by providing investors grants providing land for approximately 50 people "upwards of 15 years old", per grant, mainly in the region of New Netherland.<ref name="WDL2"/><ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4066/ |title = Conditions as Created by their Lords Burgomasters of Amsterdam |website = [[World Digital Library]] |year = 1656 |access-date = 2013-07-28 |archive-date = 2013-06-05 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130605151543/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4066/ |url-status = live }}</ref> Patroon investors could expand the size of their land grants as large as 4 miles, "along the shore or along one bank of a navigable river..." [[Rensselaerswyck]] was the most successful Dutch West India Company patroonship.<ref name="WDL2"/> [[File:FortsGoldküste.JPG|thumb|Forts of the Gold Coast (map circa 1700)]] The New Netherland area, which included [[New Amsterdam]], covered parts of present-day New York, Connecticut, Delaware, and New Jersey,<ref name="WDL2"/> with Manhattan and [[Fort Amsterdam]] serving as the first capital.<ref name=jones17>[[#jones1904|Jones, 1904]], p. 17</ref> Other settlements were established on the [[Netherlands Antilles]], and in South America, in Dutch Brazil, [[Suriname]] and [[Guyana]]. In Africa, posts were established on the [[Dutch Gold Coast|Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]]), the [[Dutch Slave Coast|Slave Coast]] (now [[Benin]]), and briefly in [[Dutch Loango-Angola]]. It was a neo-[[feudal system]], where patrons were permitted considerable powers to control the overseas colony. In the Americas, [[fur]] (North America) and sugar (South America) were the most important trade goods, while African settlements traded the enslaved (mainly destined for the plantations on the Antilles and Suriname), gold, copper and ivory. ===Decline=== [[File:Cidade mauricia.jpg|thumb|[[Recife]] or Mauritsstad – capital of [[Nieuw Holland]]]] [[File:Pakhuiswic.JPG|thumb|right|Warehouse of the GWC at [[:nl:Rapenburg (Amsterdam)|Rapenburg]] ]] In North America, the settlers [[Albert Burgh]], Samuel Blommaert, [[Samuel Godijn]], [[Johannes de Laet]] had little success with populating the colony of New Netherland, and to defend themselves against local Amerindians. Only [[Kiliaen van Rensselaer (merchant)|Kiliaen Van Rensselaer]] managed to maintain his settlement in the north along the Hudson. Blommaert secretly tried to secure his interests with the founding of the colony of [[New Sweden]] on behalf of Sweden on the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] in the south. The main focus of the GWC now went to Brazil. The West India Company managed to [[Dutch–Portuguese War|conquer parts of Brazil from Portugal]] in 1630. That same year, the colony of [[Dutch Brazil|New Holland]] was founded, with a capital in [[Mauritsstad]] (present-day [[Recife]]). In the meantime, the war demanded so many of its forces that the company had to operate under a permanent threat of bankruptcy.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} Heijer, H. den (1994) De geschiedenis van de GWC, p. 97.</ref> In fact, the GWC went bankrupt in 1636 and all attempts at rehabilitation were doomed to failure.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} [[Johannes Gerard van Dillen|Dillen, J.G. van]], (1970) Van Rijkdom tot Regenten, p. 169.</ref> In 1636, the Dutch West India Company took possession of [[St. Eustatius]], [[Sint Maarten]], and [[Saba (island)|Saba]] which all fell under Dutch control. A commander was stationed on St. Eustatius to govern all three islands by 1678. Because of the ongoing war in Brazil, the situation for the GWC in 1645, at the end of the charter, was very bad. An attempt to compensate the losses of the GWC with the profits of the VOC failed because the directors of the VOC did not want to.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} Dillen, J.G. van, (1970) Van Rijkdom tot Regenten, p. 127.</ref> In 1645, the main participants in the GWC were members of the [[:nl:Trip (geslacht)|Trip family]].<ref>Klein, P.W. (1965) De Trippen in de 17e eeuw, p. 181</ref> Merging the two companies was not feasible. Amsterdam was not willing to help out, because it had too much interest in peace and healthy trade relations with Portugal. This indifferent attitude of Amsterdam was the main cause of the slow, half-hearted policy, which would eventually lead to losing the colony.<ref>{{aut|[[Charles Ralph Boxer|Boxer, C.R.]]}} (1957) The Dutch in Brazil 1624 - 1654. Oxford, Clarendon Press. ISBN</ref> In 1647, the company made a restart using 1.5 million guilders, capital of the VOC. The States General took responsibility for the warfare in Brazil. ===Restart=== [[File:Johannes-vingboons-11-kasteel-elmina-en-fort-nassau-ghana.jpg|thumb|Painting by [[Johannes Vingboons]] of both [[Elmina Castle]] and [[Fort Nassau, Ghana]] (ca 1665)]] Due to the [[Peace of Westphalia]], the attacks on Spanish shipping were forbidden to the GWC. The Portuguese succeeded in the [[recapture of Angola]]. Many merchants from Amsterdam and [[Zeeland]] decided to work with marine and merchants from the [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Denmark–Norway]], England and other European countries. In 1649, a competing [[Swedish Africa Company]] was founded; the GWC obtained a monopoly on gold and enslaved Africans with the kingdom of [[Accra]] (present-day [[Ghana]]). [[Elmina Castle]] was the main port. In 1654 the Dutch were thrown out of [[Dutch Brazil|Brazil]] after the [[recapture of Recife]]. In 1656, the company signed the [[Treaty of Butre]] ([[Dutch Gold Coast]]). In 1659 the [[Danish West India Company]], an undercover Dutch enterprise, was founded.<ref>Svensli, F. (2018). “Evil Disposed Netherlanders”: The Dutch West India Company’s Opposition to Danish Activity on the Gold Coast, 1657–1662. Itinerario, 42(3), 326-350. doi:10.1017/S0165115318000578</ref> (In 1660 the [[Royal African Company]] was founded, led by the [[James II of England|Duke of York]].) In 1662, the GWC obtained several ''[[Asiento de Negros|asiento]]'' subcontracts with the [[Monarchy of Spain|Spanish Crown]], under which the Dutch were allowed to deliver 24,000 enslaved Africans.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} Brakel, S. van (1918) Bescheiden over den slavenhandel der Westindische Compagnie, p. 50, 67. In: Economisch-Historisch Jaarboek IV.</ref> The GWC made [[Curaçao]] a centre of the [[Atlantic slave trade]], bringing slaves from West Africa to the island, before selling them elsewhere in the Caribbean and [[Spanish Main]].<ref name="The History of Curaçao">{{cite web |url=https://www.curacao-travelguide.com/about/history/ |title=The History of Curaçao|access-date= 15 July 2019}}</ref> The influence of the GWC in Africa was threatened during the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War|Second]] and [[Third Anglo-Dutch War|Third Anglo–Dutch War]]s, but English efforts to displace the Dutch from the region ultimately proved unsuccessful.<ref>{{in lang| nl}} [http://focquenbroch.apud.net/wilre.htm Binder, F. e.a.] {{webarchive| url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060517220722/http://focquenbroch.apud.net/wilre.htm |date=2006-05-17 }} (1979) ''Dirck Dircksz. Wilre en Willem Godschalk van Focquenbroch(?) Geschilderd door Pieter de Wit te Elmina in 1669.'' Bulletin van het Rijksmuseum 27, p.7–29.</ref> The first West India Company suffered a long agony, and its end in 1674 was painless.<ref>{{in lang|nl}} Klein, P.W. (1965) De Trippen in de 17e eeuw, p. 182.</ref> The reason that the GWC could drag on for 27 years seems to have been its valuable West African possessions, due to its slaves. {{citation needed|date=September 2024}}
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