Editing Duḥkha (section)

===Etymology===

====Axle hole====
The word has been explained in recent times as a derivation from Aryan terminology for an axle hole, referring to an axle hole which is not in the center and leads to a bumpy, uncomfortable ride. According to [[Winthrop Sargeant]],
{{Blockquote|The ancient Aryans who brought the Sanskrit language to India were a nomadic, horse- and cattle-breeding people who travelled in horse- or ox-drawn vehicles. ''Su-'' and ''dus-'' are prefixes indicating good or bad. The word ''kha'', in later Sanskrit meaning "sky," "ether," or "space," was originally the word for "hole," particularly an axle hole of one of the Aryan's vehicles. Thus ''sukha'' ... meant, originally, "having a good axle hole," while ''duḥkha'' meant "having a poor axle hole," leading to discomfort.{{sfn|Sargeant|2009|p=303}}}}

[[Joseph Goldstein (writer)|Joseph Goldstein]], American [[vipassana]] teacher and writer, explains the etymology as follows:
{{Blockquote|The word ''dukkha'' is made up of the prefix ''du-'' and the root ''kha''. ''Du-'' means "bad" or "difficult". ''Kha'' means "empty". "Empty", here, refers to several things—some specific, others more general. One of the specific meanings refers to the empty axle hole of a wheel. If the axle fits badly into the center hole, we get a very bumpy ride. This is a good analogy for our ride through [[saṃsāra]].{{sfn|Goldstein|2013|p=289}}}}

===='Standing unstable'====
However, according to [[Monier Monier-Williams]], the actual roots of the [[Pali]] term [[wikt:dukkha|''dukkha'']] appear to be [[Sanskrit]] [[wikt:दुस्-|दुस्-]] (''dus-'', "bad") + [[wikt:स्था|स्था]] (''sthā'', "to stand").{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|p=483, entry note:&nbsp;}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Monier-Williams|1899|p=483, entry note:&nbsp;}}: "according to grammarians properly written ''dush-kha'' and said to be from ''duḥ-'' and ''kha'' [cf. ''su-khá'']; but more probably a Prākritized form for duḥ-sthā'', q.v."}} Regular phonological changes in the development of Sanskrit into the various [[Prakrit]]s led to a shift from ''dus-sthā'' to ''duḥkha'' to ''dukkha''.

Analayo concurs, stating that ''dukkha'' as derived from ''duḥ-sthā'', "standing badly," "conveys nuances of "uneasiness" or of being "uncomfortable."{{sfnp|Analayo|2013}} Silk Road philologist [[Christopher I. Beckwith]] elaborates on this derivation.{{sfnp|Beckwith|2015|p=28}} According to Beckwith:
{{quote|...although the sense of duḥkha in Normative Buddhism is traditionally given as 'suffering', that and similar interpretations are highly unlikely for Early Buddhism. Significantly, Monier-Williams himself doubts the usual explanation of duḥkha and presents an alternative one immediately after it, namely: duḥ-stha "'standing badly,' unsteady, disquieted (lit. and fig.); uneasy", and so on. This form is also attested, and makes much better sense as the opposite of the Rig Veda sense of sukha, which Monier-Williams gives in full.{{sfnp|Beckwith|2015|p=30}}{{refn|group=note|Beckwith notes [[similarities between Pyrrhonism and Buddhism]], and argues that the Greek philosopher [[Pyrrho]] (c. 360 – c. 270 BC) based his new philosophy, [[Pyrrhonism]], on elements of [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|Early Buddhism]], most particularly the Buddhist [[three marks of existence]]. According to Beckwith, Pyrrho translated ''dukkha'' into Greek as ''astathmēta''.{{sfnp|Beckwith|2015|p=22-23}} Becwith's views are not supported by mainstream scholarship.}}}}