Editing David Brewster (section)

==Career==

===Work on optics===
Though Brewster duly finished his [[theology|theological]] studies and was licensed to preach, his other interests distracted him from the duties of his profession. In 1799 fellow-student [[Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux|Henry Brougham]] persuaded him to study the [[diffraction]] of light. The results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the ''[[Philosophical Transactions]]'' of London and other scientific journals. The fact that other scientists – notably [[Étienne-Louis Malus]] and [[Augustin Fresnel]] – were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in France does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} A lesser-known classmate of his, [[Thomas Dick (scientist)|Thomas Dick]], also went on to become a popular astronomical writer.

The most important subjects of his inquiries can be enumerated under the following five headings:
#The laws of [[light polarization]] by [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]] and [[refraction]], and other quantitative laws of phenomena;
#The discovery of the polarising structure induced by heat and [[pressure]];
#The discovery of crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their phenomena, including the connection between optical structure and crystalline forms;
#The laws of metallic reflection;
#Experiments on the absorption of light.

In this line of investigation, the prime importance belongs to the discovery of
#the connection between the refractive index and the polarizing angle;
#biaxial crystals, and
#the production of double refraction by irregular heating.

These discoveries were promptly recognised. As early as 1807 the degree of [[Legum Doctor|LL.D.]] was conferred upon Brewster by [[Marischal College]], [[Aberdeen, Scotland|Aberdeen]]; in 1815 he was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London]], and received the [[Copley Medal]]; and in 1816 the [[French Institute]] awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe during the two preceding years.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} In 1821, he was made a foreign member of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]], and in 1822 a Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618085806/http://amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-18 |url-status=live|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=9 September 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Brewster cigar box.jpg|thumb|Inner picture of a cigar box from the early 1900s with a portrait of Brewster.]]
Among the non-scientific public, his fame spread more effectually by his invention in about 1815 of the [[kaleidoscope]], for which there was a great demand in both the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} As a reflection of this fame, Brewster's portrait was later printed in some cigar boxes. Brewster chose renowned [[achromatic lens]] developer [[Carpenter and Westley|Philip Carpenter]] as the sole manufacturer of the kaleidoscope in 1817. Although Brewster patented the kaleidoscope in 1817 (GB 4136),<ref>[http://www.ssplprints.com/image/100297/brewsters-patent-kaleidoscope-c-1817 Brewster's patent kaleidoscope, c 1817.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030185833/https://www.ssplprints.com/image/100297/brewsters-patent-kaleidoscope-c-1817 |date=30 October 2020 }} ssplprints.com</ref><ref>[http://www.brewstersociety.com/brewster_patent.pdf PDF copy of the Brewster Patent GB 4136] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721020838/http://www.brewstersociety.com/brewster_patent.pdf |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> a copy of the prototype was shown to London opticians and copied before the patent was granted. As a consequence, the kaleidoscope became produced in large numbers, but yielded no direct financial benefits to Brewster.<ref>Gordon, p. 54</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Myles W. Jackson|title=Spectrum of belief: Joseph von Fraunhofer and the craft of precision optics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6SE3sbxDsC&pg=PA119|year=2000|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-10084-7|page=119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Polar star, being a continuation of 'The Extractor', of entertainment and popular science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpYEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA202|year=1831|page=202}}</ref> It proved to be a massive success with two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes sold in London and Paris in just three months.<ref name="vms">[http://www.victorianmicroscopeslides.com/pdf/pcarpenter.pdf The Perfectionist Projectionist] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007153815/http://www.victorianmicroscopeslides.com/pdf/pcarpenter.pdf |date=7 October 2011 }}, Victorian Microscope Slides. Accessed 1 August 2011</ref>

[[File:PSM V21 D055 The brewster stereoscope 1849.jpg|thumb|The Brewster stereoscope, 1849.]]
An instrument of more significance, the [[stereoscope]], which – though of much later date (1849) – along with the kaleidoscope did more than anything else to popularise his name, was not as has often been asserted the invention of Brewster. Sir [[Charles Wheatstone]] discovered its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the construction of a cumbersome but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were made to combine by means of [[mirror]]s.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} A dogged rival of Wheatstone's, Brewster was unwilling to credit him with the invention, however, and proposed that the true author of the stereoscope was a Mr. Elliot, a "Teacher of Mathematics" from Edinburgh, who, according to Brewster, had conceived of the principles as early as 1823 and had constructed a lensless and mirrorless prototype in 1839, through which one could view drawn landscape transparencies, since photography had yet to be invented.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zone|first=Ray|title=Stereoscopic Cinema and the Origins of 3-D Film, 1838–1952|year=2007|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|location=Lexington|isbn=978-0-8131-2461-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/stereoscopiccine0000zone/page/9 9]–10|url=https://archive.org/details/stereoscopiccine0000zone|url-access=registration|quote=mr. elliot stereoscope brewster.}}</ref> Brewster's personal contribution was the suggestion to use [[Prism (optics)|prisms]] for uniting the dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly be said to be his invention.

A much more valuable and practical result of Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British [[lighthouse]] system. Although Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into operation, perfected the [[Dioptrics|dioptric]] apparatus independently, Brewster was active earlier in the field than Fresnel, describing the dioptric apparatus in 1812. Brewster pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two years before Fresnel suggested it, and it was finally introduced into lighthouses mainly through Brewster's persistent efforts.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

===Other work===
[[File:Brewster, David – Treatise on new philosophical instruments for various purposes in the arts and sciences, 1813 – BEIC 756678.jpg|thumb|''Treatise on new philosophical instruments for various purposes in the arts and sciences'', 1813]]

Although Brewster's own discoveries were important, they were not his only service to science. He began writing in 1799 as a regular contributor to the ''[[Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany|Edinburgh Magazine]]'',<ref name="Maria)1870">{{cite book|author=afterwards GORDON BREWSTER (Margaret Maria)|title=The Home Life of Sir David Brewster. By his daughter. With a portrait|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZadcAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA46|year=1870|publisher=Edmonston & Douglas|page=46}}</ref> of which he acted as editor 1802–1803 at the age of twenty.<ref name="MorganHohlfeld1959">{{cite book|author1=Bayard Quincy Morgan|author2=Alexander Rudolf Hohlfeld|title=German Literature in British Magazines, 1750–1860|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WVUP8ozExswC|year=1959|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|quote=Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany ... 1785.  ... Merged with Scots Magazine in 1804. Ed. by James Sibbald till 1792; by Robert Anderson till 1802; by Sir David Brewster till 1803.}}</ref> In 1807, he undertook the editorship of the newly projected ''[[Edinburgh Encyclopædia]]'', of which the first part appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830. The work was strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading contributors to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' (seventh and eighth editions) writing, among others, the articles on electricity, [[hydrodynamics]], [[magnetism]], [[microscope]], [[optics]], [[stereoscope]], and [[voltaic electricity]].  He was elected a member of the [[American Antiquarian Society]] in 1816.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.americanantiquarian.org/memberlistb| title = American Antiquarian Society Members Directory}}</ref>

In 1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in conjunction with [[Robert Jameson]] (1774–1854), the ''[[Edinburgh Philosophical Journal]]'', which took the place of the ''Edinburgh Magazine''. The first ten volumes (1819–1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825–1826) being edited by Jameson alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the ''[[Edinburgh Journal of Science]]'' in 1824, 16 volumes of which appeared under his editorship during the years 1824–1832, with very many articles from his own pen.

He contributed around three hundred papers<ref name=odnb/> to the transactions of various learned societies, and few of his contemporaries wrote as much for the various reviews. In the ''[[North British Review]]'' alone, seventy-five articles of his appeared. A list of his larger separate works will be found below. Special mention, however, must be made of the most important of them all: his biography of Sir [[Isaac Newton]]. In 1831 he published the ''Life of Sir Isaac Newton'',<ref>Sir David Brewster, ''Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=B5IfAQAAMAAJ Vol. 1], Preface</ref> a short popular account of the philosopher's life, in ''[[Murray's Family Library]]'', followed by an 1832 American edition in Harper's Family Library;<ref>''[https://archive.org/details/lifesirisaacnew01brewgoog The Life of Sir Isaac Newton]'' (1832) Harper's Family Library, New York, No. 26.</ref> but it was not until 1855 that he was able to issue the much fuller ''Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'', a work which embodied the results of more than 20 years' investigation of original manuscripts and other available sources.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=1 |wstitle=Brewster, Sir David|volume=4 |pages=513–514}}</ref><ref>"Discovery of gravitation, A.D. 1666" by Sir David Brewster, in ''The Great Events by Famous Historians'', Rossiter Johnson, LL.D. Editor-in-Chief, Volume XII, pp. 51–65, ''The National Alumni'', 1905.</ref>

Brewster's position as editor brought him into frequent contact with the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to recognise the benefit that would accrue from regular communication among those in the field of science. In a review of [[Charles Babbage]]'s book ''Decline of Science in England'' in ''[[Quarterly Review|John Murray's Quarterly Review]]'', he suggested the creation of "an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry and philosophers".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nlUAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA341 Reflexions on the Decline of Science in England, and on some of its Causes], ''Quarterly Review'', Vol. 43, Nr. 86 (October 1830)</ref> This was taken up by various ''Declinarians'' and found speedy realisation in the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]]. Its first meeting was held at [[York]] in 1831; and Brewster, along with Babbage and Sir [[John Herschel]], had the chief part in shaping its constitution.<ref name="EB1911"/>

In the same year in which the British Association held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour of knighthood and the decoration of the [[Royal Guelphic Order]]. In 1838, he was appointed Principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, [[University of St Andrews]]. In 1849, he acted as president of the British Association and was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the [[Institute of France]] in succession to [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius|J. J. Berzelius]]; and ten years later, he accepted the office of principal of the University of Edinburgh, the duties of which he discharged until within a few months of his death.<ref name="EB1911"/> In 1855, the government of France made him an [[Officier de la Légion d'honneur]].

He was a close friend of [[William Henry Fox Talbot]], inventor of the [[calotype]] process, who sent Brewster early examples of his work. It was Brewster who suggested Talbot only patent his process in England, initiating the development of early photography in Scotland and eventually allowing for the formation of the first photographic society in the world, the [[Edinburgh Calotype Club]], in 1843.<ref name=odnb /> Brewster was a prominent member of the club until its dissolution sometime in the mid-1850s; however, his interest in photography continued, and he was elected the first President of the [[Photographic Society of Scotland]] when it was founded in 1856.<ref>{{cite book|title=The British Journal of Photography|volume=XXI|publisher=Henry Greenwood|location=London|page=385|url=https://archive.org/stream/britishjournalp01socigoog#page/n395/mode/2up|editor=J. T. Taylor|display-editors=etal|access-date=2 November 2013}}</ref>

Of a high-strung and nervous temperament, Brewster was somewhat irritable in matters of controversy; but he was repeatedly subjected to serious provocation. He was a man of highly honourable and fervently religious character. In estimating his place among scientific discoverers, the chief thing to be borne in mind is that his genius was not characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws that he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy although he did not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never explicitly adopted the wave theory of light. Few would dispute the verdict of [[James David Forbes]], an editor of the eighth edition of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'': "His scientific glory is different in kind from that of [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Young]] and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the intellectual history of the age." In addition to the various works of Brewster already mentioned, the following may be added: ''Notes and Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's Elements of Geometry'' (1824); ''Treatise on Optics'' (1831); [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/general.29167.1 '' Letters on Natural Magic'', addressed to Sir Walter Scott (1832)] ''The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler'' (1841); ''More Worlds than One'' (1854).<ref name="EB1911"/>

In his ''Treatise'' he demonstrated that vegetal colors were related with the [[absorption spectra]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Charles R. Cross (physicist)|Charles Robert Cross]] (1848–1921, ed) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07cWAQAAIAAJ |title=Year-book of Facts in Science and Art |author2=William Ripley Nichols |author3=John Trowbridge (1843–1923, ed) |author4=Samuel Kneeland |author5=George Bliss |author6=David Ames Wells |year=1854 |quote=Sir David Brewster had several years before discovered a remarkable phenomenon in an alcoholic solution of the green coloring matter of leaves, or, as it is called by chemists, chlorophyll}}</ref> and he described for the first time the red fluorescence of [[chlorophyll]].

===History of Scottish Freemasonry===
As well as his many scientific works and biographies of notable scientists, Brewster also wrote ''The History of Free Masonry, Drawn from Authentic Sources of Information; with an Account of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, from Its Institution in 1736, to the Present Time'',<ref>{{cite book |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009710912 |title=The history of freemasonry, drawn from authentic sources of information; with an account of the Grand lodge of Scotland, from its institution in 1736, to the present time, compiled from the records; and an appendix of original papers. |last=Brewster |first=David |year=1804 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=A. Lawrie and Co.}}</ref> published in 1804, when he was only 23. The work was commissioned by Alexander Lawrie, publisher to the [[Grand Lodge of Scotland]], to whom the work has been, frequently, mis-attributed. Given that the book bears Lawrie's name and not Brewster's this is understandable. The book became one of the standard works on early Scottish freemasonry although it has been largely superseded by later works. There is no evidence that Brewster was a Freemason at the time he wrote the book, nor any that he became one later.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cooper |first=Robert |year=2006 |title=Cracking The Freemason's Code |publisher=[[Penguin (publisher)|Penguin]] |page=157 |isbn=978-1-84604-049-8}}</ref>

=== Opposition to evolution ===
Brewster's Christian beliefs stirred him to respond against the idea of the transmutation of species and the theory of evolution. His opinion was that "science and religion must be one since each dealt with Truth, which had only one and the same Author."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Strathan |first1=Alexander |title=The Day of Rest in The Library Magazine of American and Foreign Thought |date=1881 |publisher=American Book Exchange |location=New York |page=426 |edition=Vol 8 |url=https://archive.org/stream/librarymagazine13unkngoog#page/n426/search/Darwin |access-date=18 August 2018}}</ref> In 1845 he wrote a highly critical review of the evolutionist work ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'', in the ''[[North British Review]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=John M. Lynch|title="Vestiges" and the Debate Before Darwin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gr6ZiGHAqHcC&pg=PA471|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-85506-862-9|pages=471|volume=1|date=January 2000}}. First published in ''[[North British Review]]''. vol 3 (August 1845, pp. 470–515)</ref> which he considered to be an insult to Christian revelation and a dangerous example of materialism.

In 1862, he responded to Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'' and published the article ''[[s:The Facts and Fancies of Mr. Darwin|The Facts and Fancies of Mr Darwin]]'' in ''[[Good Words]]''. He stated that Darwin's book combined both "interesting facts and idle fancies" which made up a "dangerous and degrading speculation". He accepted adaptive changes, but he strongly opposed Darwin's statement about the ''primordial form'', which he considered an offensive idea to "both the naturalist and the Christian."<ref>Good Words (1862), Vol. 3; by Norman Macleod D. D. J.; Donald Macleod & Hartley Aspden. Alexander Strahan and Company. pp. 3–8</ref>